Plutarch paired Theseus and Romulus because he saw them as similar.
To what extent were the stories of the two founders more alike than different?
Model answer
Plutarch chose Theseus and Romulus as a pair because their careers look strikingly similar, and at the start of his Life of Theseus he lists the parallels. But his own comparison at the end of the two Lives concentrates on the differences, especially in their characters and in the results of their actions.
The similarities are many. Both were born in obscurity and claimed divine fathers: Theseus was the son of Aegeus or of Poseidon, raised in Troezen by his mother Aethra; Romulus was the son of the Vestal Rhea Silvia and, she said, of Mars, and was brought up by shepherds. Both were protected by the gods: the wolf suckled the twins after a flood left them on dry land, and Greek vase painters showed Theseus welcomed under the sea by Amphitrite with Athena beside him. Both proved themselves through strength - Livy's twins attack robbers, while the Theseus Kylix shows Theseus defeating bandits and the Minotaur - and both were outstanding in war: Romulus defeated Caenina and the Sabines, Theseus fought the Centaurs and the Amazons. Both made their cities great. Both carried off women, and both suffered family disasters: Romulus killed Remus, while Theseus caused Aegeus' death by forgetting to change the sail. Finally, both fell out with their people at the end - Theseus died in exile on Skyros, and Romulus vanished, perhaps murdered by the senators - and both were later honoured with cults.
Yet the differences are significant. Plutarch stresses that Theseus chose his deeds freely, though he could have ruled safely in Troezen, whereas Romulus acted from necessity and fear. Romulus founded a city from nothing, while Theseus united existing settlements; Thucydides describes the synoikismos as a political reform carried out with intelligence. Their abductions also had opposite results. Theseus' seizures of Ariadne, Antiope and Helen were, in Plutarch's view, without excuse and brought wars on Athens, ending in the loss of Aphidnae, whereas Romulus took only Hersilia for himself and treated the Sabine women with honour, so that his violent act brought two peoples into partnership. Plutarch also observes that both failed to keep the true character of a king, but in opposite directions: Theseus gave way to the people, Romulus became harsh and tyrannical.
How far, then, were they alike? In outline their stories follow the same pattern of a founder-hero: a mysterious birth, divine protection, youthful deeds, war, women, family tragedy and a troubled end. This is why Plutarch could pair them. But the meaning of each element is different: Theseus is a hero of choice whose achievement is political and whose personal faults damage his city, while Romulus is a hero of necessity whose violence builds a lasting state. These differences also reflect how each city saw itself - Athens as a community of free citizens united by intelligence, Rome as a city of Mars that grew by war and by absorbing other peoples.
Overall, I would say their stories are more alike in structure than in substance. The similarities explain why ancient writers saw them as a natural pair, but the differences - in motive, method and outcome - are what Plutarch himself thought most worth judging, and they tell us more about the values of Athens and Rome.
Explanation
The best answers go beyond a list of parallels: they show that the stories share a common heroic pattern but differ in motive, method and outcome, and they connect those differences to each city's values. Precise use of Plutarch's contrasts, supported by Livy, Thucydides and visual evidence, distinguishes Levels 4 and 5.
