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Ecologism - Key Concepts & Divisions
Notes on Ecologism as a political ideology, with a focus on the key concepts and various strands interpretations of them.
Date : 18/01/2016
Author Information
Uploaded by : William
Uploaded on : 18/01/2016
Subject : Politics
Key ConceptsSustainabilityEcologists argue
against the ingrained assumption found in other political (so-called `grey`)
ideologies that human life has unlimited potential for growth and prosperity.
Ecologists link socialism and capitalism as different forms of industrialism,
claiming that they still hold at their core a belief in material prosperity and
the need for constant economic growth - this attitude is challenged by
ecologists who reject the `cowboy approach` to economics and viewing the
earth`s resources.Most ecologists favour
the Spaceship Earth model of
understanding the earth`s resources. Recognising that the earth`s ecosystem is
a closed one, and that there is a finite amount of resources available on the
planet means that ecologists are very conscious of the fact that constant
growth is not sustainable. Being unwilling to recognise the facts of living
within a closed system, the earth`s resources are depleted because of
overconsumption when people are given free and unregulated access to common
resources - the tragedy of the commons -
which leads to rationally self-interested consumption that, collectively,
leads to irrational ends and the destruction of environments/resources/land.To counter these
influences ecologists have emphasised the principle of sustainability arguing that the sustainability of an action must be
taken into account when deciding whether it is acceptable - emphasising
development of sustainable energy sources, for example, which can rightly be
considered `income` rather than `capital.` Sustainability also rejects the
emphasis on constant growth put forward by most other political theorists
recognising that it cannot go on forever.Modernist ecologists try to reconcile sustainability and economic growth
through `weak` sustainability, trying to reduce the impact that economic growth
has on the environment through tax levies and pollution penalties. Radical ecologists such as Deep and
Social ecologists have rejected this and prefer `strong` sustainability which
can favour a return to nature, post-material/industrialism and a `zero-growth`
attitude.Environmental EthicsEcologism strives to
extend human moral thinking in a number of different direction. Some ecologists
challenge the anthropocentric nature of previous ethical systems, while some
maintain that human concerns are of more moral importance but propose ideas of futurity wherein the needs of future
generations must be taken into account. This is similar to the concept of Stewardship (1. either preserving the
earth on behalf of God, 2. or for the sake of future generations who will have
to live in the situation we leave behind for them). Others reject this because
the needs of future generations are incalculable and we cannot reasonably be expected
to care for future generations given that ethics is based on reciprocity. Other ecologists have
chosen to focus on the extension of ethical concerns to include animals. One
such theorist is Peter Singer, who`s theory of Preference Utilitarianism he
extends to include animals based on the fact that they have the capacity to
feel pleasure and pain and as such are deserving of moral consideration. He
argues that humanity practices institutional speciesism by not considering the moral value of animals. Deep ecologists go
further than this by asserting that nature has intrinsic moral value. From having to beingAnother way in which
ecologists have challenged traditional ethical positions is in the rejection of
materialism (the belief that happiness can be equated with material
possessions) based on the belief that it only promotes craving and
acquisitiveness (very similar to Buddhist philosophy - suffering caused by
craving) and is in fact detrimental to
human development. Fromm describes the current mindset of materialism societies
as being "having" focussed. Materialism also provides the cultural
basis for consumerism, industrialism and the associated environmental
degradation. Ecologists have
advocated a radical paradigm shift
in the way we view not only ethics but our understanding of human goals and
fulfilment. Linking quality of life concerns with fulfilment rather than the
attainment of material gain, ecologists claim, is a key step towards promoting
ecological balance. They advocate a shift from `having` focus to
"being" focus - rejecting material desire and instead seeking
fulfilment in nature, personal growth and sometimes spiritual awareness. Nature and PoliticsThough some deep
ecologists assert that ecologism is an entirely new political ideology that
constitutes a radical departure from any of the ideals or attitudes espoused by
previous traditions, some ecologists have drawn on the ideas of other
ideologies to explain how the environmental crisis has come about and how it
can be dealt with. In this way ecologism can be considered a cross-cutting
ideology in the same way that feminism and nationalism are. The most significant
subtraditions of ecologism are: ·
modernist
ecology·
social ecology·
deep ecology.Divisions within EcologismModernist EcologyModernist or reformist
ecology refers to the form of green politics that is practiced by most
environmental pressure groups and a growing range of maintstream political
parties. Modernist ecology is primarily reformist in character because it seeks to promote ecological
principles & environmentally responsible conduct without challenging the central
features of capitalist modernity - growth, materialism, individual
self-seeking, etc. It remains anthropocentric in character and promotes
`shallow` ecology. Key features include recognition that there are `limits to
growth` and promoting sustainable
development. Modernist ecology
blends well with the political traditions of Liberalism and Conservatism.
Liberalism has been criticised by ecologists as being too anthropocentric in
its support for individualism, in rejecting Utilitarianism (the moral system
that underpins much of classical Liberalism) and rejecting the atomistic view
of society that is seen as being inextricably linked to the Cartesian-Newtonian
Paradigm. However, the emphasis placed on individual growth and development
found in Liberalism can lead to an `enlightened` form of anthropocentrism where
people are encouraged to take into account long-term interests and appreciate
the natural world. Conservatism has been
sympathetic to ecologism on two grounds. Firstly conservatism is drawn from a
romantic and nostalgic attachment to a rural way of life that is threatened by
change and the development of industrialism. This pastoral form of conservatism
links the preservation of nature and `natural heritage` - woodlands, forests
and so on - with the preservation of traditional values and culture. Second,
conservatives have advocated a market based solution to environmental problems
by arguing for green capitalism,
based on ideas that the market will respond appropriately to a more green-aware
consumer base and to changing environmental conditions because capitalism has
nothing to gain from seeing the end of the world. Social EcologySocial ecology refers
to the idea that environmental degradation is linked to/promoted/caused by
existing social structures and therefore that profound social change is
necessary to redress environmental imbalance. Social ecology has three distinct
traditions: v Ecosocialismv Eco-anarchismv EcofeminismEcosocialismEcosocialism, as argued
by Rudolph Bahro (1982), is the idea that the root cause of the environmental
crisis is capitalism. The natural world has been despoiled by industrialization
- which is a consequence of capitalism`s need for constant growth and wealth. Capitalism
leads to the commodification of nature, degradation of environments in the
search for wealth and extols ideas of dominion over nature. Workers and nature
are exploited for capitalist ends. As such, capitalism and ecologism are
incompatible, and any attempts to redress ecological imbalance will require
social change. The idea of
ecosocialism is founded on the notion that capitalism is the enemy of the
environment and therefore socialism must be its friend. There is however
tension between `Red` and `Green` priorities and which must come first (similar
to Socialist Feminism) and some ecologists have noted that past examples of
socialist states are just as anthropocentric and industrial-focused as their
capitalist predecessors. Most modern socialist parties campaign with promises
of economic growth and `fairer` prosperity for all rather than ecological
messages. As a result ecosocialists have been reluctant to let Green issues
become subordinate to Red ones, and assert that the two must go hand in hand -
a solution that solves both issues at once (pastorialism, usually) must be
found. Eco-anarchismAnarchism has had a
profound effect on the way ecologists view a post-industrialist society.
Ecological principles have also influenced the way anarchists see the structure
of their stateless societies, as diverse and self-regulating in the same way
that ecosystems are, achieving a kind of balance and harmony without the need
for authoritative control. Eco-anarchists have advocated living in
self-sufficient communes, close to nature, producing only what is required,
which would lead to communities spontaneously developing an understanding of
organic relationships and ecology. This process of decentralisation would, as
Bookchin describes it, lead to "a more intelligent and more loving use of
the environment." Some ecologists have
not rejected the anarchist understanding of the state and centralised power,
seeing them as potential tools for redressing environmental damage. Some fear
that by dismantling or weakening the state we could give free reign to the
forces that led to industrialisation and blighted the natural environment in
the first place.EcofeminismThere are two main
forms of ecofeminism, built around the androgynous and essentialist views of
gender. Androgynous ecofeminists see patriarchy as having distorted the natural
inclinations of men, setting them apart from the `natural` world of homemaking,
nurturing and personal relationships - this leads to the sexual division of
labour which inclines men to subordinate women and nature alike, seeking to be masters of both. Many ecofeminists
subscribe to an essentialist view of gender, and claim that women must
liberate themselves from patriarchal culture by embracing their `female nature`
which is linked and governed by its relationship with the natural world. Men
operate in a world that is synthetic, and a society structured in that image is
inherently damaging to the environment a non-patriarchal society that embraces
female qualities of harmony with nature would be less damaging.
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