International English

Introduction

"The present day world status of English is primarily the result of two factors: the expansion of British colonial power, which peaked towards the end of the nineteenth century, and the emergence of the united states as the leading economic power of the twentieth century" (D. Crystal 1997 p53).

English undeniably permeates all aspects of international life. Around 375 million people speak English as their first language A. Curtis (2002:6). English is probably the most common spoken language when native and non-native speakers are combined. D. Crystal (1997:5) estimated between 1.2 and 1.5 billion in the late 1990's though estimates vary and are dependent upon the definition and measurement of literacy and mastery. There is however, no simple cause and effect answer to the question of why English has been adopted as the international language.

Nevertheless, we can identify the origins and continued expansion of an international English through analysis of four primary interlocking factors. These factors can be broadly defined as historical, geographical, cultural and social - including science and technology. Analysing the English language in its historical, geographical, cultural and social contexts demonstrates how English reached its dominant position as an international language, and how that position is retained. Ultimately however the primary basis for interpreting the rise, adoption and continuing spread of English as an international language is essentially political, and best understood within the framework of linguistic imperialism in particular and cultural imperialism in general.

International English

Geographical and Historical Factors

Geographically and historically the beginnings of an international English reach back more than 16 centuries. The early phase of English, up to the Middle Ages within the British Isles, could be considered the foundation for the development towards a global language1. However, the first major step in this direction was taken with British expansion to and colonization of America towards the end of the sixteenth century Crystal (1997:25). After the first settlers arrived, the North American continent was flooded by many languages but foremost was English. During the 17th century, English spread further south due to the establishment of plantations and the slave trade, north to Canada and west towards the Pacific coast, for the most part in the 18th and 19th centuries. While America was doing its best to gain the status of an independent country, Australia and New Zealand, were 'discovered', explored and settled by Europeans, and at the beginning most of them were British. During the 19th century the English language got distributed and infused into numerous areas and niches across the globe, and although the people living in these locations influenced the English language, English had a devastating effect on local, indigenous languages and cultures R. Rubdy and M. Saraceni, eds. (2006: 186). The debate and disagreement about what the terms "World English or international English" actually denote is a consequence of this. Given the various backgrounds of the colonized territories however, it was unavoidable that English would become the generic term with many branches leading to and from it, and with specific forms of the language, then as know, being privileged or centered2.

International English

Cultural and Social Factors

Apart from colonial expansion, another event that undoubtedly affected Britain and English language development was the publication of Samual Johnsons Dictionary of the English Language in 1775. Johnson's achievement for the English language was a major and a very significant one, as already his contemporaries appreciated when they considered his work "to 'fix', 'ascertain', and generally stabilize the language" Hussey (1995: 141). In addition, the British telegraph system that was established from the first half of the nineteenth century, basically linked the whole Empire with its mother country and its language cf. Porter (1991: 150). Britain was also the leading trading power during most of the nineteenth century, and due to international transactions including advertising and consumerism, the language itself inevitably continued to spread. With the growth of the Empire during the nineteenth century, in a time of industrialisation, unemployment and a fast growing population, many Britons emigrated first and foremost to the United States. In consequence, a distinctly diverse communication situation evolved as a result of migration in and to the US, which was to become fundamentally important in the establishment of English as an international language3.

During the 19th century millions of Africans, Chinese, Mexicans Japanese and all kinds of Europeans Boyer et al. (1998: 476) met and had to have one thing in common in order to talk, trade, and find their way in their new home country: the ability to speak at least a bit English. Furthermore, the United States managed in a relatively short period of the twentieth century to take the leading role in world history. The former colony became the dominant power in economy, politics and entertainment, and it is not least owing to these spheres that the English language was further distributed and stabilised as a world language. Many genuine American things that were created in the first half of the 20th century were exported, literally and psychologically. The American lifestyle became popular and with it the spread of English. American films were and are still watched all over the world, and the world economy was then and is still dependent on the economy of the United States. Moreover, further technological innovations of all kinds, were invented, developed, and improved in the United States. Most recently this would include the internet which originated in and is dominated by the US. The internet, as international as it may be, has a language - English. Apart from data, abbreviations and countless websites that are written in or derived from English, the language of users is also mainly English: "Of an estimated 40 million users of the Internet in 1997, a majority used English" McArthur (2003: 3). In consequence the English language continues to spread and underline its dominance.

International English

Conclusion

Although historical, geographic, cultural and social factors can explain the existence of an international English the most important factors are arguably political. According to Phillipson (1992), linguistic imperialism, in the form of English as an international language, can be conceived as the supremacy maintained by the establishment and continuous reconstruction of cultural and structural inequalities between English and other languages. Phillipson's theory criticises the historic spread of English and the language`s continued dominance, primarily in postcolonial contexts. Drawing on the works of Gramsci and Galtung, Phillipson sees the rise of international English as part of a complex hegemonic process, which is supported by theorists including Alastair Pennycook (1998), Suresh Canagarajah (1999), Julian Edge (2009) and Adrian Holliday (2005). As such, the crucial factors to consider when explaining the rise and continued pre-eminence of English are essentially political.

Notes

1. For a full discussion of the origins of English during its formative period between the fifth and twelfth centuries, see Crystal, David (2003). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University Press.

2. For a concise collection of data, material and ideas relating to the 'World English' debate see: Braj Kachru, Yamuna Kachru, Cecil Nelson eds. The Handbook of World Englishes. Wiley-Blackwell 2006

3. A compressive explanation of the spread of English in the USA is given in: Algeo, John (Ed.). (2001). The Cambridge history of the English language: English in North America (Vol. 6). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Refferences

Boyer, Paul S. et al (1998). The Enduring Vision : A History of the American People Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company

Suresh Canagarajah and A. Suresh Canagarajah (1999), Resisting Linguistic Imperialism in English Teaching, Oxford Applied Linguistics

Crystal David (2001), English as a Global Language. Foreign Language Teaching and Resesrch Press

Curtis Andy, Romney Mary eds (2006), Color, Race, And English Language Teaching: Shades of Meaning. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

Julian Edge (2009), (Re-)Locating TESOL in an Age of Empire (Language and Globalization), Palgrave Macmillan

Adrian Holliday (2005), Oxford Applied Linguistics: The Struggle to Teach English As an International Language, Oxford University Press.

Hussey, Stanley (1995). The English Language: Structure and Development, London; New York: Longman

McArthur, Tom (1998), The English Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press

Pennycook, Alastair (1998), English and the Discourses of Colonialism, London: Routledge

Porter, A. N. (1991), Atlas of British Overseas Expansion, London: Routledge

Rubdy, Rani and Mario Saraceni, eds, (2006), English in the World: Global Rules, Global Roles, London; New York: Continuum

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