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The Effects Of Bullying

Date : 19/01/2014

Author Information

Nicole

Uploaded by : Nicole
Uploaded on : 19/01/2014
Subject : Psychology

Bullying is a form of abuse that can be represented in various modalities. The most obvious is physical bullying; however, psychological and emotional bullying are equally detrimental. Below is a summary of the short- and long-term effects different types of bullying can have on the child and adolescent, both physically and psychologically.

Physical effects of bullying

A physical representation of bullying can be seen in the appearance of bodily injuries. These can include:

- bruises - cuts - bumps - burn marks - missing teeth - loss of hair (hair may have been pulled out) - sprained or dislocated joints - broken or fractured bones - head injury

One must be aware of these symptoms for they are important to identifying both the short- and long-term effects of bullying.

Short-term effects

Short-term effects with regards to physical bullying may be considered as temporary consequences. However one should always be aware of them as they may have relevance to future psychological disorders or difficulties. The short-term effects would describe the healing process after a beating. It would refer to the body`s natural ability to mend itself following a laceration or bruising. The reduction in a "bump" or re-growth of pulled out hair. A need to wear a wrist-guard after suffering a sprained wrist, or using crutches after enduring broken bones or dislocated joints.

When looking at head injuries, one will recognise a concussion as short-term effects. Initial symptoms of a concussion can be:

- vomiting - headache - dizziness - short-term memory loss and confusion - numbness - shock - anxiety

Long-term effects

The most common long-term effect is that of scarring and damage to physical appearance. This is most distressing for adolescents and will contribute to psychological difficulties. Damage to bones and joints may cause permanent limps, however this is not seen in all individuals. It is common for many who suffer from these symptoms to experience serious orthopaedic difficulties in later life. Head injuries and head traumas are the most significant factors when looking at the long-term changes in one`s abilities. Head injury refers to blows to the head from outside the skull. It also includes any wounds were the skull is fractured. Head trauma refers to the movement of the brain within the skull. The brain floats within fluid and any severe blows from the outside may cause it to "shake" back and forth in the scalp. This form of abuse is known as Traumatic Brain Injury and can be incorporated as a form of bullying.

Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) occurs when a head injury or head trauma causes brain dysfunction. The milder cases display only a temporary dysfunction of the brain cells. More profound cases show bruising, tearing, bleeding and other damage. This results in serious complications and/or death.

TBI is caused by a strike to the head. Often damage is restricted to the point of contact, but multiple blows or a severe jolt can cause tearing and/or excessive bruising. A head injury whereby an object penetrates the skull will cause irreversible damage contributing to bleeding in and around the brain.

The symptoms seen will depend on the severity of TBI experienced. Milder cases will show the following:

- loss of consciousness for several seconds to a minute - mild confusion or daze - memory problems - lack of concentration - headaches - dizziness - vomiting - sensory problems (blurred vision, ringing ears, odd taste in mouth) - light sensitivity - mood swings - depression - fatigue - difficulty or excessive sleeping

Moderate and severe cases can include any or all of the milder symptoms as well as the following:

- loss of consciousness from several minutes to hours - extreme confusion - agitated behaviour - slurred speech - weakness/numbness in fingers and toes - inability to wake from sleep - loss of coordination - persistent headaches - persistent vomiting and nausea - seizures - dilation of pupils of eyes - clear fluids draining from nose and/or ears

As TBI identifies dysfunction caused by damage to the brain cells, there is sure to be further long-term effects. The following list details complications which may occur because of either damage to nerve cells, cerebrospinal fluid build-up and/or infections.

- state of coma - vegetative state - minimally conscious state - state of "locked-in syndrome" (aware of surroundings but cannot communicate) - post-traumatic epilepsy (recurring seizures) - swelling of the brain - meningitis - stroke - blood clots - paralysis of facial muscles - loss of vision - loss of sense of smell - swallowing difficulties

In addition to their physical states, individuals with TBI will show long-term impairments in particular areas of functioning. They will show changes in cognition, communication skills, behaviour and emotion.

Cognition refers to thinking processes or abilities. If one has experienced a head injury, particularly to the frontal lobe, he/she will show a decline in or loss of the following abilities:

- memory - judgement - planning - concentration - learning - problem solving - decision making - organisation - multi-tasking

Communication refers to an individual`s ability to express themselves and interact with the world. It should be noted that the presence of communication problems contributes greatly to further psychological distress. An individual whom is unable to relay their needs will experience heightened frustration and anxiety. Below is a list of the communication difficulties which may arise in individuals whom have suffered a TBI.

- difficulty understanding speech (forming and expressing words) - difficulty producing words through speech - difficulty starting and stopping conversations - difficulty changing and identifying pitch, tone, and emphasis during speech - difficulty following conversations (inattention) - difficulty understanding nonverbal cues - inability to use required muscles to write words

In addition to one`s thinking processes and communicative abilities, the individual suffering from TBI will show a change in behaviour. Research indicates a head injury can produce a change in both behaviour and personality. Not all individuals who suffer head trauma will endure a personality change, yet there may be differences in behaviour. These are symptoms one should be aware of:

- depression - anxiety - fatigue - mood swings - irritability - lack of motivation - changes in sleeping patterns - lack of empathy for others - engaging in risky or aggressive behaviour - change in levels of self-esteem - difficulty in social settings - change of social groups - verbal outbursts - lack of self-awareness

Neurological disorders

While physical abuse contributes to many psychological disorders, it also plays a part in the development of neurological disorders. While the head injury may not act as the primary cause, it can increase the risk of the individual developing the disorder.

1. Amnesia Amnesia is defined as the loss of memory due to physical or psychological trauma. There are various types of amnesia but only three are specific to head injury. Retrograde amnesia is the most well-known type of amnesia. This is where the individual is unable to recall any memories before the onset of amnesia (the injury that cause memory loss). Memories of the primary injury will be either "fuzzy" or forgotten. Anterograde amnesia is represented by the inability to retain new memories after the onset of amnesia. The individual can make memories but is unable to keep them and thus will forget everything after the injury - a clean slate every day.

Post-traumatic amnesia is a transient state of amnesia. This means it can be either retrograde, anterograde or mixed type. It may also represent as either a temporary state or permanent, meaning it "comes and goes".

2. Alzheimer`s disease Alzheimer`s disease is a form of dementia that affects your memory, thought processing and communication skills. It is most common in old age, however early head trauma can contribute to early onset.

Psychological effects of bullying The psychological effects of bullying can manifest in various ways. The most common and influential being low self-esteem, low mood, and a feeling of loss of control.

A child whom has been raised in a secure home will develop a confident personality with high self-esteem. However, when subjected to bullying he/she will feel a "loss of control". This inability to maintain control of a situation will make the child feel unsure of himself/herself, thus will affect the level of self-esteem. An emergence of low mood may also emerge, and this contributes to various behavioural dysfunctions.

1. Substance Abuse A "substance" refers to alcohol, prescribed medication, illegal drugs, and over-the-counter pharmaceuticals. It is used to elevate a depressed mood, however has be seen to worsen it. Substance abuse can contribute to the development of many psychological disorders including psychosis (hallucinations and delusions); alcohol-induced amnesia; bi-polar disorder; and conduct disorder. As a short-term effect the child may show signs of the mentioned disorders, but if the misuse is persistent and consistent the child is at greater risk of meeting a full diagnosis.

2. Self-harm Self-harm is defined as the intentional harm to one`s body as a means of expression and communication. It can take many forms including cutting, persistent scratching, skin picking, choking oneself, burning oneself, substance abuse, reckless behaviour and eating disorders (discussed below). Children and adolescents will use self-harm as a means of communicating distress. In addition to the physical short-term effects, the individual will experience symptoms related to depression. The most relevant will include suicidal ideation, depressed mood, fatigue and a change in sleep patterns. If the issue of self-harm is not addressed the child is at risk of chronic depression and anxiety disorders with a greater chance of suicide.

3. Anorexia Nervosa Anorexia nervosa is an eating disorder whereby the individual uses starvation as a means of losing weight. Anorexia is considered a form of self-harm as it is a self-inflicted disorder which can severely affect both your mental and physical health. The symptoms of anorexia include an intense fear of gaining weight, a refusal to maintain a healthy weight and a distorted body image. These symptoms can develop from the low self-esteem bullying incurs. The physical effects of anorexia nervosa are more evident as short-term effects. This will include:

- fatigue - lanugo hair (a layer of fine hair growth on the arms) - drop in body temperature - constipation - change in sleep patterns - stunted growth - stunted libido - gastrointestinal disease

Long-term effects include:

- osteoporosis - heart conditions - anaemia

Long-term psychological effects are also evident in those with anorexia nervosa. If the disorder remains untreated these individuals are at greater risk of developing Body Dysmorphic Disorder due to the distorted body image. They are also at higher risk of suicide.

4. Bulimia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa is an eating disorder similar to anorexia nervosa. It focuses on the individual`s distorted body image and irrational fear of gaining weight. Unlike anorexia, bulimia uses purging or vomiting as a means of controlling weight gain. The short-term effects are comparable to anorexia, however those with bulimia will present with Russell`s Sign - a build-up of calluses on the knuckles caused by the act of inducing vomiting.

5. Affective Disorders Affective disorders refer to mood and anxiety disorders. Depression, a mood disorder, is a common sign of bullying. It will represent as a disinterest in once enjoyed activities, a low mood, a change in self-esteem and a change in sleep patterns. Some may self-harm and experience ideas of suicide - this is dependent on the severity of the bullying. If untreated, the child is at high risk of developing chronic depression and/or bi-polar disorder.

Anxiety disorders stem from fear and an inability to communicate distress. The frustration of this inability will create a sense of psychological discomfort and anxiety. The child will also develop a fear of the situation in which he/she will interact with the bully. "Anticipatory anxiety" and panic attacks may be experienced. If not treated social anxiety disorder may be a later diagnosis.

6. Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is an anxiety disorder. It occurs when the individual experiences a memory "flashback" of a traumatic event which causes extreme distress. This momentary experience occurs during a state of depersonalisation, thus they are re-living the traumatic event in detail. It is this depersonalisation which contributes to the severe anxiety experienced. Short-term effects among children include loss of interest in enjoyed activities, clinging to guardians, nightmares, bed wetting and mutism (not speaking). If not treated the child will be at higher risk of meeting a full diagnosis of PTSD. Furthermore, those suffering mutism may not regain speech.

This resource was uploaded by: Nicole