Effects Of Social Bonding On Crime And Delinquency: A Review Of Hirschi`s Social Control Theories.

The orthogenesis of criminality, the criminal, and society opens up vulnerability in criminological theories that do no encapsulate the multi-layered network of forces that influence behaviour, no theory is universal nor is it without critique. Theories of social control stem from the regulatory presence of the collective consciousness and the explanations of criminality revolve around the attachments to the social body as a basis social control theory explains crime through the degree of an individual s relationship with social institutions. This explanation is relatively unpretentious and has often been overshadowed by learning and social structure theories. In an effort to stand out, Travis Hirschi (1969) dared to ask the question on why people don t commit crimes. It is through this reversal on the stale affair of criminology that aided in empirically solidifying the theoretical framework for social bond theory, which conveyed that delinquency occurs when bonds to social institutions are weekend or broken (Hirschi, 1969). The status of this study has gained much academic and governmental attention, which lead to a plethora of tests and adaptations internationally.

Following the Freudian based work of Reiss (1951), Toby (1957) was the first to evaluate the problem of juvenile delinquency through the socio-economic apparatus as an effort to critique the approach of social disorganisation theory. America at that time was economically thriving, but so was anti-social behaviour amongst lower class youths, this behaviour was attributed to the ineffective parenting and loosening of parental and community control. By the time these youths reached adolescence they would often be found to be left behind in the education system leaving them unskilled without the intention to aspire for productive goals, instead they find themselves in limiting unskilled employment where relationships with authority figures are as detrimental as they were with teachers. When status can t be achieved within legitimate social institutions, then involvement in gang culture becomes the alternate source for achieving status. It is at this point where the criminal impulse that is restricted by society s laws surface and allow for active engagement in thrill seeking, status gaining, and economic boosting forms of delinquency. In contrast, families with higher socio-economic status socialise children with a higher stake in conformity because they have more to lose when caught committing a delinquent act, whereas the lower class delinquent only further solidifies his detrimental status. Furthermore, Toby (1957) does not solely attribute delinquency to poor relationships with education the collective response of the community and peer influences plays a vital role in isolating or contributing to delinquent behaviour depending on whether the majority have high or low stakes in conformity (Toby, 1957). Further contributing to this argument, Briar and Plivian (1965) suggested that involvement in delinquent behaviours is a result of situational inducement where the delinquent act is prompted by short-term desires that are exacerbated by the presence of likeminded peers. At a fundamental level, Toby`s concept of `stakes in conformity` explains that delinquency is a derivative of an inadequate bond to the educational system, which entails the marginalisation of disenfranchised youth, and as a consequence leads to seeking status from kids in the same position.

Despite the significant emphasis placed on the importance of succeeding in education (Toby, 1957), Nye (1958) believed that the family held an even more important role in the social control process. More specifically, he claimed that there is no significant force that causes delinquency since it is a universal impulse that is mainly controlled at home by the family. In order to explain juvenile delinquency, Nye (1958) identified three main exertions of social control: Direct control, embracing the restrictions and rewards imposed by authoritative figures such as teachers, police, and parents Indirect control, the identification and affection towards individuals who abide by social norms usually their caregivers and internal control, which is the development of conscience that is formed by social interaction, and most importantly in the primary stages of socialisation. With an underdeveloped sense of internal control, Nye(1958) found that children will be more likely to act on impulse in order to protect their interests. Moreover, he identified that the polarised involvement of parents would be a chronic indicator of delinquency too much control or too much freedom both lead to delinquent behaviour. However, the empirical basis of this theory comes under much criticism due to the biased sample of suburban youth, and the limited scope to identify chronic or serious delinquent behaviour in children with detrimental relationships with families (Jones, 2012). Despite the methodological criticism, the essence of Nye`s (1958) argument contributes to the understanding that polarised control of children affects bonds to society and leads to delinquency.

Early social control theories were underpinned by Freudian elements, and as an effort to transcend the variable of personality factors driving an individual s conscience (Reiss, 1951, as cited in Hirsch, 1969 Nye, 1958), Hirschi (1969) focused on social mechanics and the impact that personal relationships have on behaviour and the level of conformity (Intravia, 2009).Whilst still making reference to psycho-analytical elements, Hirschi`s (1969) mantra is centred on providing empirical evidence and testable parameters of control in the categories of the four bonds. Attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief, are the constituting elements that bind the individual to methods of conformity to society, and as a result discourage humans to act on their animalistic impulses.

Firstly, Attachment is used in reference to the internalisation of the norms of society, more specifically to the closeness experienced with family, friends and teachers the closer the child is to their parents and the more they identify to the expectations of them, the less likely they are to violate the social contract and disappoint their admired figures. In a self reported survey to measure the affectional identification with both parent figures, a negative correlation was found amongst students who indexed a high level of attachment to their father and the likelihood of committing delinquent acts. Hirschi ( 1969) explained this relationship by detecting that the children who identified with their parents would usually engage in dialogue to discuss any personal issues or anxieties faced by both of them. As illustrated, it is argued that children who are engaging in criminal behaviour do not think about the consequences that their acts will have on the expectations of their parents. Further supporting the notion that tight bonds prevent delinquency, are the cross-cultural adaptations of Hirschis s (1969) study. The negative correlation between parental attachment and likelihood of delinquency was present during an array of international studies: Dutch adolescents with tight bonds to their mother were significantly less likely to be engaged in delinquency when compared to their peers (Junger Tas 1992), Brook et al (1999) found that Colombian adolescents reduced their delinquent behaviour when there were closer bonds to parents, and in Denmark, Japan, and Sweden, prominence of affecitonal ties within families significantly reduced the probability of a child resisting conformity (Arnett et al ,1993Harada, 1995 Martens,1992).

Referring back to the question posed, individuals who are tightly bonded to their parents are in fact less likely to commit delinquent acts, but that is under the assumption that all parents hold positive conventional values. Through the scope of cultural deviance theory, Miller (1958) identified that some lower class neighbourhoods are prone to accept criminal behaviour, and sometimes even encourage it acting as a catalyst. It is with this understanding that in such cases, attachment to unconventional parents exacerbates delinquency, but detachment from them has the same effect as it does with detachment from conventional parents delinquent behaviour is committed without concern for the repercussions when there is a detachment to positive or negative parents (Hirschi, 1969). The same relationship with bonds to peer groups is identified. Tight bonding to delinquent peers increases the opportunity and likelihood of engaging in delinquent behaviours, as does bonding to conforming peers and the likelihood of not engaging in delinquent behaviours (Wright and Cullen, 2000 Krohn and Massey, 1980). Essentially, attachment to social groups can be used as an indicative device for engagement in delinquency across differing cultures, but its sights must be set on identifying the normative alignment of those groups first.

Commitment draws an explicit influence from Toby s (1957) stakes in conformity in which it refers the commodities or status that an individual could risk losing if engaging in delinquent behaviour. Commitment to conformity is identified by three elements: an individual is in a situation where by his involvement in certain activities has direct or indirect consequences on other interests, involvement in those activities must be a conscious choice, and the ramifications of his actions must be recognised (Becker, 1960:35). Essentially when an individual is striving to achieve a good education, aspiring to have a prestigious career, and gaining status or respect in one s community involvement in delinquent flings must be a rational choice after assessing the risk it can have on long-term conventional rewards (Hirschi, 1969). These results are reflected in Rosenbaum and Lasley s (1990) self-report study of high school students, where favourable attitudes towards education and gaining good grades were in positive correlation with lowered rates of delinquency. In addition, Tanioka and Glaser (1991) looked at the method of uniforms as a mean of indirect social control, they measured educational aspirations of Japanese students and their involvement in delinquency, again a negative correlation was found. Furthermore, as derived from the latter study, the low crime rate in Japan is attributed to a deeper and broader web of informal social control, tighter bonds to society, better integration of underclass ethnic groups, and a structured transition from childhood to adulthood (Tanioka and Glaser, 1991, as cited in Brunsma, 2004). The consistent results support a strong argument, however delinquency may also be attributed to an error of judgment in the rational calculation of the risk associated with the deviant act, therefore it can be attributed to both a mistake in calculation and or a lack of commitment to future goals (Hirschi, 1969).

The third bond to society is involvement, which entails the time invested in conventional activities. It takes the logical approach to explaining that if an individual invests time in pro-social activities such as participating in a football club, then involvement in anti-social behaviour cannot be afforded due to the time expenditure in other activities. Generally, youths who spend time in afterschool activities that entertain their academic, social, or athletic needs, will not have the time to engage in petty theft, taking drugs, or other delinquent behaviours. However, this does not take into account the possibility of acting on delinquent impulses before or after the pro-social activities. Furthermore, The Youth in Transition Study (as cited in Hass, 2001) surveyed over 2000 10^th grade boys in 1966, and found that measures in involvement in after school activities and studying were the lowest predictor of delinquency coming down to 1%. Hirschi (1969) noted this deficiency in research and still maintained what perceives to be a stubborn and contradictive attitude that involvement in prosocial activities can still be held as a central element when speaking in theoretical statements, [in] practical programs, and in the common sense to identifying the causation and prevention of delinquency (Hirschi, 1969:188).

The last bond identified by Hirschi (1969) is belief, this refers to the extent, which an individual is inclined to obey society s rules. Again, explaining this bond becomes simple, if an individual does not hold a strong belief or respect in the conventional value system of society, then engaging in delinquent behaviours becomes an easier process. However not sharing the same beliefs doesn t necessarily constitute neutralisation of deviant impulses nor does it incite them, it just makes the act easier to justify. Overall, the most important factor to take into consideration is that some bonds under individual review may pose an insignificant effect on delinquent behaviour, but together they coalesce in a manner in which behaviour is effectively controlled indirectly by the relationships with social groups.

In reference to the question posed, utilising social control theory to determine the probability of delinquency is a viable route to obtain an empirically supported answer. Hirschi s (1969) social bond theory has made a substantial contribution to criminology challenging mainstream theories through its altered viewpoint and extensive testing. It encapsulates cultural differences, pressures of social class, and draws on a puritan influence of Durkheim s anomie theory. Furthermore, it has had countless bearing in cross-cultural examinations, and has proved to provide consistent findings which solidify the argument that tightly bonded individuals are less likely to act in a delinquent manner. However, negative peer or family influences or errors in judgment can also be attributed to involvement of delinquent behaviour. Furthermore, the statistical analysis of individual bonds such as belief or involvement fall easily to scrutiny and prove to be difficult to survey. Overall, distilling social control theory to such criticisms can be out ruled due to the statistical significance and overlap of the bonds (Hirschi, 1969).