Applied Sports Psychology - Developing A Mental Skills Training Programme For An Elite Athlete

Part One Using a Framework to Inform Practice

Applied sport psychology practice is concerned predominantly with providing a quality experience for athletes through improving psychological skills, well-being and performance in order to enhance the quality of the sport experience (Anderson et al. 2002). Psychological skills training is defined as the systematic and consistent practice of mental skills for the enhancement of performance and the awareness of the usefulness of psychological skills training is increasing (Sheard and Golby 2006). When administering a psychological skills training programme, it is important for a psychologist to adopt an applied framework. This stems from the fact that the framework is responsible for guiding action and planning for successful implementation. A number of frameworks exist and therefore there is no definite answer as to what such a programme should include or in what order (Weinberg and Williams 2001, cited Miltiadis, Fotios and Michalis 2012). Consequently, the usage of a framework is critical to offer a suggested plan of action of deliverance in a literature base which includes a number of ideas on how such a programme should best be administered. Psychological consultancy is often complex and dynamic and so frameworks are useful in the early stages of the consultancy process.

There are a number of different approaches to psychological skills training and all have common components of education, acquisition and practice. Here, the adopted framework was the Psychological Skills Training Programme (PSTP) devised by Weinberg and Williams (2001) which has seven discrete but related phases. Stages one to three on this framework concern themselves with the development of knowledge on both the client and the sport itself. An initial meeting with the athlete may be carried out in order for the psychologist to gain vital demographic information and here, the psychologist would be looking to build some sort of rapport. Athletes can be reluctant about participating in mental training programmes and trust can sometimes be difficult to obtain. Further assisting the building of this relationship is the extent to which a psychologist can develop baseline knowledge on the needs of the sport and the requirements for successful sporting performance. Weinberg and Williams (2001) cite a lack of the consultant s sport specific knowledge as another factor which may be problematic in the early stages of psychological skills training. Stage four of the PSTP is the needs analysis of the athlete which is used to assess the strengths and weaknesses of the athletes skills. This can be completed using a number of methods, from face-to-face interviews to performance profiling to psychological inventories such as the Test of Performance Strategies (Thomas, Murphy and Hardy 1999). A combination of these methods can be effective in providing a thorough analysis of the athletes needs which is then used to determine the content of the skills programme itself. Stages five and six therefore concern themselves directly with the packaging and selection of psychological skills and the implementation of the training programme. Here, the literature suggests that both the education and then practice of these psychological skills is fundamental for the success of the training programme (Harris and Harris 1984, cited Cumming, Hall and Shambrook 2004). The final stage of the PSTP Programme is the evaluation which, as suggested by Weinberg and Williams (2001), is a complex yet essential aspect used to improve both the programme and the skills of the individual administering it.

Part Two Assessment of an Elite Athlete

The athlete is a twenty one year old university first team footballer who also plays semi-professional football for a club in the ninth tier of English football. A club footballer until the age of eighteen, the athlete was selected by his university first team before featuring for two Northern League clubs, one of which he still plays for. Football is a sport with a number of physiological and psychological demands. With reference to physiology, great importance is placed on the aerobic fitness and anaerobic power of athletes (Sheppard and Young 2007). This is of particular relevance to this athlete who plays in central midfield with players in this position being required to link both defence and attack (Thelwell, Greenlees and Weston 2006). Consequently Ekblom (1986) concludes that midfielders cover approximately five percent more distance than any other position ensuring they complete approximately 9,000 yards during a match (Reilly and Thomas 1997). Despite much of football being played at the moderate to low level of physical activity this distance, combined with the fact that the sport demands repeated bouts of intense work, ensures that fatigue is common (Bangsbo 1994).

Dosil (2006) identified a number of psychological demands in football. Arguably the most important psychological demand is confidence particularly with centre midfielders who are often called upon to dictate play and alongside the physiological demands, must carry out a number of motor skills such as ball control, tackling and passing (Thelwell, Greenlees and Weston 2006). Midfielders must have confidence in their ability to carry out these skills effectively, whilst also displaying excellent decision making and communication skills. The art of concentration management in football is the knowledge of which situations require increased and decreased levels of concentration and this is especially relevant to this athlete who, as part of the midfield, will be involved in both attacking and defending play. Consequently, midfielders require increased levels of concentration in more situations than players in other positions for example a goalkeeper could decrease his or her level of concentration slightly if their team have a corner at the other end of the pitch. It is critical for footballers to achieve an optimum level of arousal and maintain this throughout the match enabling them to cope better with situations that lead to fluctuations in arousal level such as conceding a goal. Self-control is also tested greatly in a sport such as football due to the fact that there a number of determinants that could affect it, such as the result, the likelihood of making a mistake, or a refereeing error. These factors ensure that football exists as a highly pressured sport, and so pressure is another psychological demand that stems from a vast array of sources. Pressure to be selected in the team places great importance on successful individual performance in training and matches, whilst pressure from coaches, supporters and parents also influences the quality of athletic performance.

The brief review of both the physiological and psychological demands of football and an initial meeting with the athlete completed stages one to three of the PSTP (Weinberg and Williams 2001). Using the applied framework to inform practice, a needs analysis on the athlete was then completed. This sort of assessment, particularly in relation to psychological skills is a developing field of both theoretical and applied interest to sport psychologists (Thomas, Murphy and Hardy 1999). Despite the athlete being well known to myself, a performance profile was conducted following a short interview in order to produce a more in-depth needs analysis of his psychological, technical, physical and tactical skills. Whilst the interview was used to discuss brief ideas surrounding perceived requirements and athletic experiences of performance, performance profiling involves the athlete beginning to consider his or her own notions of self-performance and consequently has the potential to further enhance a psychologist s understanding of the athlete (Butler and Hardy 1992). Additionally, it ensures that the athlete has control over the skills selected for improvement. Weinberg and Williams (2001) argue that this reduces the chance of poor adherence and low levels of motivation that can occur if an athlete does not fully accept the decisions made during the needs analysis stage. Most critically in the establishment of a psychological skills training programme, it provides the athlete, the coach and the psychologist with a clear, visual representation of the athlete s perception of performance which can be used to structure psychological skills training (Weston, Greenlees and Thelwell 2011). Doyle and Parfitt (1996) confirmed the validity of performance profiling but did suggest the benefits of not simply using the method unreservedly, hence why it is often used alongside other methods such as interviewing or additional psychological inventories.

The performance profile involves the athlete listing the skills that they believe are essential to high level position in their sport or position. Then, for the listed skills, the athlete is required to rate their current performance level on a scale of one to ten and the ideal performance level for an elite athlete, before comparing the two. Consequently the athlete, the psychologist and the coach are immediately able to direct the psychological skills training towards fulfilling the athlete s perceived needs (Butler and Hardy 1992). Upon completion of the profile, it was clear that the athlete s main weaknesses came within mental skills, scoring himself as low as five on arousal level maintenance and six on self-confidence. He scored poorly on physical skills but prioritised these less, explaining that he completes enough physical practice during training but never receives any psychological training. The weaknesses identified in both arousal and self-confidence were worrying given how essential these are to sporting performance, especially in relation to a player in his position (Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos and Theodorakis 2007). There were no major weaknesses identified in the athlete s tactical or technical skills but there was a perceived, minor weakness in his crossing ability. The athlete felt this was fairly important, explaining that he is often responsible for taking corners and set-pieces in areas close to the opposition goal.

Part Three Development of a Mental Skills Training Package

In order to produce a balanced mental skills training programme, it was agreed self-talk and imagery would be combined to produce a two month, pre-season training programme that focused on improving athletic performance which can be seen in the appendix. With the athlete responsible for taking attacking set-pieces which can lead to goals being scored, his self-perceived weakness in his crossing ability was worrying and so imagery was identified as a method which could be employed to improve performance in this motor skill. Self-talk was then identified to improve two psychological skills identified by the athlete as weak and critically important to performance, self-confidence and levels of arousal or motivation. The athlete explained how both his self-confidence and motivational level can drop during matches if things start to go wrong, such as when his team are losing.

With the athlete s perceived crossing ability being considerably lower than the other technical skills identified, it was decided that one aspect of the mental skills training programme would aim to address it. Imagery was chosen as the method used to improve the athlete s performance of this motor skill, with Blair, Hall and Leyshon (1993) concluding that given sufficient training, imagery can be effective in enhancing motor skill performance. Paivio (1985, cited Blair, Hall and Leyshon 1993) argued further that imagery can have both a cognitive and a motivating function, which ensures that it can be used to motivate the athlete, increasing the chance of improvement in the performance of the skill. Additionally and directly related to the present intervention, Thelwell, Greenlees and Weston (2006) validated the usage of imagery in improving football performance, from aspects such as motor skill performance to decision making, with both relevant in improving the athlete s crossing ability. Furthermore, images that represent favourable performance accomplishments such as the images to be visualised by this athlete can also be used to enhance self-efficacy (Lowther, Lane and Lane 2002). This links inexorably with one of the psychological weaknesses identified through the performance profile, self-confidence, as this low self-confidence would lead to low self-efficacy in the specific performance of this motor skill. Evidence suggesting the usefulness of imagery to improve performance will be explained to the athlete in order to complete the education aspect of stage six of the PSTP and increase the likelihood of adherence to the training programme.

In order to structure the implementation of imagery training, the theory of functional equivalence (Holmes and Collins 2001), also known as the PETTLEP model, was used. Despite arguing that elements of the PETTLEP model are grounded in behavioural matching between imagery and action, rather than through functional equivalence, Wakefield et al. (2012) confirmed the usefulness of such a model in the field of imagery training. This theory utilises a seven point checklist of elements, hereby referred to as PETTLEP, which encompasses physical, environmental, task, timing, learning, emotional and perspective elements of imagery. These elements should be made as equivalent as possible to the physical skill itself in order to enhance the quality of imagery training. By suggesting the usage of environmental cues such as video footage or photographs, verbal instructions, timing equivalent to the task itself and relevant emotional states such as self-confidence, the model helps to create an image that visualises the athlete in a situation as physically close to the one they encounter in real life. Additionally important is the element of learning which ensures that the imagery must be constantly reviewed and adapted to take into account the increasing. The perspective element of imagery must also be considered, with most elite athletes using a combination of internal and external imagery (Orlick and Partington 1988). Taking these elements into account, the overall imagery is therefore individualised for each athlete s needs and Appendix Two displays the mental skills instructions for this athlete in the format of a completed PETTLEP model. As suggested in the PSTP the athlete will be given time to practice the visualisation before the routine is then implemented during practice sessions and shortly before competition, with regular practice hopefully ensuring that the psychological skill soon becomes self-regulated.

In relation to psychological weaknesses, the athlete scored himself lowest on his ability to maintain optimum levels of arousal and self-confidence. The ability to maintain optimum levels of arousal is essential for a midfielder involved in most of the play for the whole match with Hatzigeorgiadis, Zourbanos and Theodorakis (2007) suggesting that motivational levels can drop towards the end of matches. Whilst conducting a similar study on midfielders in football, Thelwell, Greenlees and Weston (2006) suggested the use of motivational self-talk, which will be used with this athlete. Self-talk is defined as the words, phrases and statements that athletes can use to direct sport-related thinking (Hardy 2006) and works based on the principle that what individuals say to themselves effects the way in which they behave (Ellis 1976, cited Hatzigeorgiadis et al. 2009). In relation to the weaknesses identified here by the performance profile, Zinnser et al. (2006, cited Hatzigeorgiadis et al. 2009), argued that self-talk can be used effectively to enhance self-confidence, whilst Hardy (2006) suggested that it can be used to keep athletes on course to completing goals and consequently, to maintain arousal and effort levels. Again, the research base surrounding the effectiveness of self-talk will be explained to the athlete as part of the education stage listed in the PSTP (Weinberg and Williams 2001). Together with the athlete, a list of negative thoughts and phrases experienced during competition was drawn up. These statements were then altered into more positive ones as shown in the appendix before the athlete was given time to talk through and learn them in his own time. This was done both for statements surrounding negative self-confidence such as I am good enough to make the difference in this game and for ones involved with the athlete s levels of arousal such as Now we are losing I am more motivated than ever to win the match . A number of amended statements utilised the athlete s past successful experiences. By doing this, the athlete could recall past performance accomplishments which as well as improving his feelings of self-competency, would maintain high levels of arousal in order for the athlete to continue putting in maximal effort.

Adherence to psychological skills training can be an issue, and so considerations have to be made in order to maximise the athlete s compliance and commitment to the programme. One issue is the lack of time that the psychologist and athlete spend together (Weinberg and Williams 2001) and to counter this, I will ensure I meet regularly with the athlete throughout the pre-season schedule to monitor their progress. This will include a joint evaluation of how the programme is going on week five, as shown in the weekly breakdown of the programme in the appendix. The athlete is fairly keen to improve all aspects of his game and so the education surrounding the usefulness of these training techniques will hopefully encourage him immediately to show an interest in engaging with the programme from the start. Having known the athlete for many years, there is a sense of trust and rapport which will also work to increase the likelihood of adherence to the programme. Finally, a key aspect of the programme seeks to increase the athlete s arousal levels through the usage of motivational self-talk and it is hoped that as the athlete engages more with the programme, his increased motivation will ensure he continues to adhere to it.

Part Four Personal Reflections of Professional Practice

The framework enabled me to work with an athlete in a structured and thorough manner in order to design an appropriate mental skills training programme. Despite having a strong interest in football personally, I had never previously researched into the physiological or psychological demands of it, especially those that are position specific. This was therefore both interesting and rewarding and enhanced the quality of my knowledge of the athlete s needs even before conducting the needs analysis. Having known the athlete for many years, the early stages of the framework were fairly simple to complete and it would almost have been even more interesting and rewarding to conduct the needs analysis on an athlete I didn t know. By using a short interview alongside a performance profile, I hoped to come to a number of well-informed conclusions that would be mutually agreed by both the athlete and I and I felt this worked very well. It was however quite difficult to mutually agree on which aspects of the athlete s game to work on and consequently which mental techniques to incorporate into the programme. Because of this, should such the process be repeated I would attempt to adopt the Test of Performance Strategies (Thomas, Murphy and Hardy 1999) as part of the needs analysis process. This would have given me more detailed information on the frequency of the athlete s utilisation of psychological skills such as self-talk and imagery to ensure that I wasn t simply employing methods that the athlete may have used before. In this case, that was not an issue but I did feel the framework could offer more assistance on the actual implementation of such a training programme.

In relation to PSTP framework (Weinberg and Williams 2001), I would be happy to use it again as the clarity and structure of the model was better than on any other frameworks that I found within the literature. Another framework I did briefly look at was one suggested by Tenenbaum and Eklund (2007) which broke up the mental skills training process into four categories philosophy, model, strategies and techniques. It then argued that the effectiveness of the consultant combines with both physical training and social context to improve mental skills that in turn assists the development of performance, team, foundation and personal development skills. Although the idea of mental skills impacting on various other aspects of performance is attractive, the multi-layered approach to the implementation of the model was complex and seemed to place less priority on aspects such as the needs analysis than the chosen framework. It also left no room for an evaluation, which is an essential aspect of any framework in order to be able to reflect on professional practice and therefore develop your skills as a sports psychologist.