Language In Society – Multilingualism As Both A Problem And Resource

LANGUAGE IN SOCIETY MULTILINGUALISM AS BOTH A PROBLEM AND RESOURCE

In the modern world, multilingualism is a common phenomenon. In fact, the number of bilingual or multilingual individuals in the world is greater than the number of monolingual individuals (Paulston and Tucker, 2003, p301). This term, by broad definition, is the use of two or more languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers. Even though there have appeared countless studies and debates along with the prevalence of multilingualism, it is often agreed that multilingualism can be both a problem and a resource.

Problems caused by multilingualism can easily be seen at both the individual and societal level. People living in multilingual societies who are not monolingual are, daily, faced with the question of which language to use (Coulmas, 2013, p123). As it is almost impossible to select only one language or another, such polyglots usually find themselves in situations where they switch back and forth between the languages (this phenomenon is also known as code-switching). This resulting admixture usually makes it hard for outside observers to understand, therefore, it tends to be considered a bastardized blend of languages. Such consideration is known to not only hinder social interaction but also cause social distress to multilinguals. Another challenge multilinguals encounter is individual language loss, or the decrease in incompetence of a language less used. Holmes (1993) illustrated this idea with the example of a 20-year-old Annie who was a young speaker of Dyirbal (an Australian Aboriginal language). She used this language only with older people in her community, including her grandmother. At school, however, she only used English. Due to different circumstances, Annie became less competent in her native language. Annie was indeed experiencing language loss, which could lead to less interaction with the speech community she lived in and a possible miscommunication with the community s elders.

At the societal level, as it is apparent that multilingual communities have problems that more nearly monolingual ones do not, there are even more challenges posed by multilingualism (Fasold, 1984, p4). First of all, just as a person could experience language loss, a society could gradually experience the death of a language. A possible scenario could be the potential disappearance of Dutch in the current three- member states of the Dutch Language un ion (Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname). Secondly, multilingualism threatens nationalism. At the most practical level, communicational challenges within a country can act as an impediment to commerce and industry and disrupt the nation. More seriously, however, multilingualism could destroy nationalism. As language holds importance in the unity of a nation, and nation-states are more likely to be stable than multinational ones, the development of a sense of nation is more difficult for a multilingual state. There are two ways for multilingual states to tackle this challenge: either try to develop a national language, or try to spread nationalism beyond the grounds of language. Historically, the former route has been taken by most countries, which entails the rising of problems such as choosing the national language, promoting its acceptance to non-native speakers, and building policies so that the language serves the flourishing of the state. Thirdly, regarding the involvement of multilingualism with society, nationism could work against nationalism in this context. For instance, on pragmatic terms, the best immediate option for the governing language in a newly independent colony might be the old colonial language because those nationals with the most ruling experience already master this language. Nevertheless, the old colonial language is usually a terrible option on nationalist grounds. The reason is because: for a newly independent colony that has just achieved its own geographical territory, maintaining the language of the state it just fought against threatens its identity as a nation. One solution to this problem, adopted by Ireland, is to declare both the nationalist language (Irish) and the language of the former coloniser (English) as official, and use English for immediate nationist purposes while promoting Irish. India s solution was quite the same it declared the selected nationlist language (Hindi) as official, while permitting the de facto retention of English as a second language for ruling, without giving it constitutional recognition. A deadline (which, in the end, could not be met) was set for Hindi to totally replace English. Other nations such as Mali do not declare an official language and use the colonial language for ruling, while continue to search for a further linguistic solution. Moreover, in education, nationalism is conflicted with nationism in a different sort. To a certain extent, the best strategy for language in education is to utilise the various ethnic-group languages. Eventually, these are the languages already spoken by children and classrooms can operate without requiring children to learn another language. From some perspectives, however, this strategy could be problematic for nationalism s development. If children receive their education in their ethnic languages, such languages may become increasingly important and symbolise contranational nationalism. This sociolinguistic conflict in education certainly calls for further research.

Whereas multilingualism brings along problems for both individuals and societies, its problems are unlikely to outweigh its benefits, for multilingualism has long been credited for privileged linguistic abilities, cognitive competence, and personal development in polyglots. In 2010, Michael Paradowski, a professor at University of Warsaw, has compiled a list of the benefits of multilingualism based on numerous studies. This compilation includes all of three aforementioned privileges in multilinguals.

In terms of linguistic abilities, polyglot children have a keener awareness and sharper perception of language (enhanced metalingual abilities, e.g. detection of anomalous sentences) (Galambos & Goldin-Meadow 1990 Ewert 2006, forthc.) Cummins (1981) also stated that the capability of understanding how language itself works and manipulating languages to think and come up with solutions are enhanced by learning foreign languages and that regardless of the practical usage of determining the number of words in a sentence, multilingual children are better at it. Ben Zeeve (1977) , Bialystok (1986) and Yelland et al. (1993) discovered that such children are more able to distinguish between meaning and form, and learn to read in their native language at a higher speed. Gartinkel and Tabor (1991) confirmed the high positive correlation between acquiring a foreign language and improved reading marks as well as better performance in other primary mother-tongue skills, irrespective of factors such as academic level, race and gender. They also develop a markedly better language proficiency in, sensitivity to, and understanding of their mother tongue (e.g. Johnson et al. 1963) . For example, graduating high school students with two or more years of learning a foreign language significantly outperformed other students on acquirement tests in their mother-tongue (Bastian, 1980). Non-monolinguals also develop a larger vocabulary over age (Kosmidis, 2006), including their own language (Johnson et al. 1963), score higher consistently in vocabulary-measuring tests of English as their first language, particularly when the language studied is Latin-orgiiniated (Masciantonio, 1977). This proves contrary to the misconception that bilingualism creates late-talkers children. Polyglots, with more developed language-learning abilities, more complex linguistic knowledge and language awareness, are better in institutionalized learning situations (Wolff 2006). Multilinguals can also group and classify meanings in different ways. For example, even though different languages have different terms or no terms for certain colours: Latin does not have general gray and brown , the Navajo separate blue and green whereas the Shona separate between blue and yellow , different nationalities still experience the colours of the world in the same way. To continue, polyglots obtain extra skills in language usage, for example: engage in transfer, borrowing, insertional, alternational, inter- and intra- sentential code switching, mixing, and translation (Grosjean, 1989), which are patterns found to be exceptional in monoglots. These patterns, according to Majer (2006), are analyzed as psycholinguistically motivated hybrid utterances serving different interactional, linguistic, pragmatic, cognitive and strategic functions . Such behaviours in some cases may be as valuable as inserting a foreign term to lower the risk than, for instance, to omit that term for the lack of a relevant translational equivalent in the speaker s lexicon (Pym, 2006). Hence, it is understandable that a multi-languages speaker acquire languages more quickly and effectively than their monolingual counterparts (Cummins, 1981).

More interestingly, scientists have proved polyglots possess more advanced cognitive abilities, compared to monolinguals. Ratte (1968) and Lapkin et al. (1990) claimed that they have a keener ear for listening and their memories are sharper. Diaz (1983) also declared multilinguals better verbal development, spatial abilities, and conceptual development, along with creativity. Hakuta (1986) and Landry (1973) agreed that multihull children show more flexibility with cognitive skills, solve problems generally better, have higher-order thinking skills, figural creativity and divergent thinking. Masciantonio (1997), Raffaerty (1986), Andrea et al (1989), Armstrong and Rogers (1997), and Saunders (1998) believed that polyglots outperform others in standardised tests and core subjects consistently. For instance, in Brussels secondary schools, multilingual scholars usually outperform their peers in fraction and problem-solving exercises, achieve higher Mathematics scores and Arts scores. In 1995, UNESCO declared that bilinguals and multilinguals are more used to code-switching thought patterns and have more flexible minds . In the same year, Bruck et al discovered that multilinguals are capable of improving performance in both verbal and non-verbal intelligence tests such as IQ tests. Furthermore, Dr. Michale Phelps, Chairman of the Department of Molecular and Medical Pharmacology, University of California Los Angeles School of Medicine, in 1996, has spoken on the correlation between learning foreign languages and the lifelong benefits of developing the brain, as well as the functional connections in the child s brain developed by learning other languages. Before Dr. Phelps, in 1991, Garfinkel and Tabor have unraveled the secret between children s multilingual brains and improved test scores. They declared that underachievement in other subjects could be reversed when children were given the chance to enrich their knowledge with foreign- language learning. This enrichment, they argued, could only be acquired by extended foreign language studies and by no other experience. For example, children of average intelligence who went on to study a foreign language showed significant improvement in reading tests scores. Two years before, in 1989, Andre et al also indicated that children of average intelligence who participated in foreign language programs far exceeded the national average in reading and math.

Last but not least, one of the most contributive factors in determining the individual benefits of multilingualism is personal development. A multilingual regularly plays the role of both the insider and the outsider and thus is able to witness his or her culture from a new perspective that is unavailable to monoglots. They, as a result, could broaden their horizons, compare and contrast different cultural concepts. Similarly, polyglots could become better problem-tacklers by standing a better chance of gaining multiple perspectives on the issue (Kennedy, 1994) and thinking more critically. In the same way, multilingual students, during their schooling and formative years, are also more likely to develop a relatively higher self- concept and self-esteem, because they are more accustomed to improving their test scores and excelling subjects such as foreign languages (Masciantonio 1977 Andrade et al. 1989 Saunders 1998). In terms of personality development, as the studying of other languages provides the knowledge and excitement of a new culture, multilinguals are more prone to appreciating and understanding people of different nations. In this way, they are less likely to express xenophobia, racism, and intolerance (Carpenter & Torney 1974). In 2004, Curtain and Dahlberg s recent research shows that foreign language studies enhance intercultural competence by offering a unique insight into other cultures and providing students with a positive influence on the cultural information learned. This is, nowadays, becoming more and more sought after as global interdependence, multi-ethnic and multicultural societies are the norms. In 2006, Schwarzer, a writer of Harvard Business Review revealed that banks were making more profits each year by celebrating and promoting diversity in the workplace. This fact definitely pointed to the employment and social benefits of multilinguals and encouraged undergraduates to become bilinguals or multilinguals to increase their job prospects as well as to work for employers that otherwise they would not be able to interact with.

To a society, multilingualism is certainly a precious resource. It is typical for multilingual communities to assign different tasks to different languages or linguistic varieties. One language, for instance, might invariably be used as the home language and among close friends, whereas another is utilised for doing business with governmental agencies. The following scenario could be taken as a simple illustration: there are two friends who are both bilingual in the same home and governmental contexts. One is a local governmental official and his friend has official government business with him. Furthermore, the government employee has two recommendations for his friend: one based on his official status as a government official, and the other based on their mutual friendship. If the government official man gives the official advice in the government language and the friendly advice in the home language, a misunderstanding about which advice was which would be unlikely . The friend would not take the advice spoken in the home language as official. However, in a similar monolingual context, the friendly advice might easily be taken as the official one. The second way that multilingualism could be a societal benefit is when speakers could utilise it to strengthen their social identities. The example is about language usage during an argument of a Swahili-English bilingual married couple in Tanzania (Mkilifi, 1978).. The husband uses Swahili, whereas his wife uses English. Mkilifi suggests that this situation be explained as below: Swahili is symbolic of the traditional, clear-cut role relationships between husbands and wives, whereas English is associated with less traditional, more converging roles. By speaking Swahili, the husband is showing his traditional role without saying a single word about it. Meanwhile, the wife is appealing to a less submissive view of marriage roles, simply by speaking English. This phenomenon is commented by Southworth (1997) as bilinguals develop functions of linguistic heterogeneity which (potentially at least) go beyond the expressive possibilities available in a single code . Last but not least, multilingualism could be a solution to the aforementioned conflict between nationism and nationalism and could create dynamic societies. Such societies would create a more colourful and exciting world to live in. A country could include multi ethnicities which are aware of their linguistic and cultural identity but also see themselves as part of the country as a whole.

All in all, at the individual level, multilingualism is much more of a resource than a problem, as it benefits the multilingual speakers significantly. Meanwhile, at the societal level, multilingualism currently plays the role of both a problem and a powerful resource.

Regardless of such discrepancies, on both the micro-level and the macro-level, multilingualism is an interesting and thought-provoking phenomenon that deserves further in- depth studies and researching, so that the resourcefulness could be maximised whereas the problems could be minimised.