Ecologism - Key Concepts & Divisions

Key Concepts

Sustainability

Ecologists argue against the ingrained assumption found in other political (so-called `grey`) ideologies that human life has unlimited potential for growth and prosperity. Ecologists link socialism and capitalism as different forms of industrialism, claiming that they still hold at their core a belief in material prosperity and the need for constant economic growth - this attitude is challenged by ecologists who reject the `cowboy approach` to economics and viewing the earth`s resources.

Most ecologists favour the Spaceship Earth model of understanding the earth`s resources. Recognising that the earth`s ecosystem is a closed one, and that there is a finite amount of resources available on the planet means that ecologists are very conscious of the fact that constant growth is not sustainable. Being unwilling to recognise the facts of living within a closed system, the earth`s resources are depleted because of overconsumption when people are given free and unregulated access to common resources - the tragedy of the commons - which leads to rationally self-interested consumption that, collectively, leads to irrational ends and the destruction of environments/resources/land.

To counter these influences ecologists have emphasised the principle of sustainability arguing that the sustainability of an action must be taken into account when deciding whether it is acceptable - emphasising development of sustainable energy sources, for example, which can rightly be considered `income` rather than `capital.` Sustainability also rejects the emphasis on constant growth put forward by most other political theorists recognising that it cannot go on forever.

Modernist ecologists try to reconcile sustainability and economic growth through `weak` sustainability, trying to reduce the impact that economic growth has on the environment through tax levies and pollution penalties. Radical ecologists such as Deep and Social ecologists have rejected this and prefer `strong` sustainability which can favour a return to nature, post-material/industrialism and a `zero-growth` attitude.

Environmental Ethics

Ecologism strives to extend human moral thinking in a number of different direction. Some ecologists challenge the anthropocentric nature of previous ethical systems, while some maintain that human concerns are of more moral importance but propose ideas of futurity wherein the needs of future generations must be taken into account. This is similar to the concept of Stewardship (1. either preserving the earth on behalf of God, 2. or for the sake of future generations who will have to live in the situation we leave behind for them). Others reject this because the needs of future generations are incalculable and we cannot reasonably be expected to care for future generations given that ethics is based on reciprocity.

Other ecologists have chosen to focus on the extension of ethical concerns to include animals. One such theorist is Peter Singer, who`s theory of Preference Utilitarianism he extends to include animals based on the fact that they have the capacity to feel pleasure and pain and as such are deserving of moral consideration. He argues that humanity practices institutional speciesism by not considering the moral value of animals.

Deep ecologists go further than this by asserting that nature has intrinsic moral value.

From having to being

Another way in which ecologists have challenged traditional ethical positions is in the rejection of materialism (the belief that happiness can be equated with material possessions) based on the belief that it only promotes craving and acquisitiveness (very similar to Buddhist philosophy - suffering caused by craving) and is in fact detrimental to human development. Fromm describes the current mindset of materialism societies as being "having" focussed. Materialism also provides the cultural basis for consumerism, industrialism and the associated environmental degradation.

Ecologists have advocated a radical paradigm shift in the way we view not only ethics but our understanding of human goals and fulfilment. Linking quality of life concerns with fulfilment rather than the attainment of material gain, ecologists claim, is a key step towards promoting ecological balance. They advocate a shift from `having` focus to "being" focus - rejecting material desire and instead seeking fulfilment in nature, personal growth and sometimes spiritual awareness.

Nature and Politics

Though some deep ecologists assert that ecologism is an entirely new political ideology that constitutes a radical departure from any of the ideals or attitudes espoused by previous traditions, some ecologists have drawn on the ideas of other ideologies to explain how the environmental crisis has come about and how it can be dealt with. In this way ecologism can be considered a cross-cutting ideology in the same way that feminism and nationalism are. The most significant subtraditions of ecologism are:

· modernist ecology

· social ecology

· deep ecology.

Divisions within Ecologism

Modernist Ecology

Modernist or reformist ecology refers to the form of green politics that is practiced by most environmental pressure groups and a growing range of maintstream political parties. Modernist ecology is primarily reformist in character because it seeks to promote ecological principles & environmentally responsible conduct without challenging the central features of capitalist modernity - growth, materialism, individual self-seeking, etc. It remains anthropocentric in character and promotes `shallow` ecology. Key features include recognition that there are `limits to growth` and promoting sustainable development.

Modernist ecology blends well with the political traditions of Liberalism and Conservatism. Liberalism has been criticised by ecologists as being too anthropocentric in its support for individualism, in rejecting Utilitarianism (the moral system that underpins much of classical Liberalism) and rejecting the atomistic view of society that is seen as being inextricably linked to the Cartesian-Newtonian Paradigm. However, the emphasis placed on individual growth and development found in Liberalism can lead to an `enlightened` form of anthropocentrism where people are encouraged to take into account long-term interests and appreciate the natural world.

Conservatism has been sympathetic to ecologism on two grounds. Firstly conservatism is drawn from a romantic and nostalgic attachment to a rural way of life that is threatened by change and the development of industrialism. This pastoral form of conservatism links the preservation of nature and `natural heritage` - woodlands, forests and so on - with the preservation of traditional values and culture. Second, conservatives have advocated a market based solution to environmental problems by arguing for green capitalism, based on ideas that the market will respond appropriately to a more green-aware consumer base and to changing environmental conditions because capitalism has nothing to gain from seeing the end of the world.

Social Ecology

Social ecology refers to the idea that environmental degradation is linked to/promoted/caused by existing social structures and therefore that profound social change is necessary to redress environmental imbalance. Social ecology has three distinct traditions:

v Ecosocialism

v Eco-anarchism

v Ecofeminism

Ecosocialism

Ecosocialism, as argued by Rudolph Bahro (1982), is the idea that the root cause of the environmental crisis is capitalism. The natural world has been despoiled by industrialization - which is a consequence of capitalism`s need for constant growth and wealth. Capitalism leads to the commodification of nature, degradation of environments in the search for wealth and extols ideas of dominion over nature. Workers and nature are exploited for capitalist ends. As such, capitalism and ecologism are incompatible, and any attempts to redress ecological imbalance will require social change.

The idea of ecosocialism is founded on the notion that capitalism is the enemy of the environment and therefore socialism must be its friend. There is however tension between `Red` and `Green` priorities and which must come first (similar to Socialist Feminism) and some ecologists have noted that past examples of socialist states are just as anthropocentric and industrial-focused as their capitalist predecessors. Most modern socialist parties campaign with promises of economic growth and `fairer` prosperity for all rather than ecological messages. As a result ecosocialists have been reluctant to let Green issues become subordinate to Red ones, and assert that the two must go hand in hand - a solution that solves both issues at once (pastorialism, usually) must be found.

Eco-anarchism

Anarchism has had a profound effect on the way ecologists view a post-industrialist society. Ecological principles have also influenced the way anarchists see the structure of their stateless societies, as diverse and self-regulating in the same way that ecosystems are, achieving a kind of balance and harmony without the need for authoritative control. Eco-anarchists have advocated living in self-sufficient communes, close to nature, producing only what is required, which would lead to communities spontaneously developing an understanding of organic relationships and ecology. This process of decentralisation would, as Bookchin describes it, lead to "a more intelligent and more loving use of the environment."

Some ecologists have not rejected the anarchist understanding of the state and centralised power, seeing them as potential tools for redressing environmental damage. Some fear that by dismantling or weakening the state we could give free reign to the forces that led to industrialisation and blighted the natural environment in the first place.

Ecofeminism

There are two main forms of ecofeminism, built around the androgynous and essentialist views of gender. Androgynous ecofeminists see patriarchy as having distorted the natural inclinations of men, setting them apart from the `natural` world of homemaking, nurturing and personal relationships - this leads to the sexual division of labour which inclines men to subordinate women and nature alike, seeking to be masters of both.

Many ecofeminists subscribe to an essentialist view of gender, and claim that women must liberate themselves from patriarchal culture by embracing their `female nature` which is linked and governed by its relationship with the natural world. Men operate in a world that is synthetic, and a society structured in that image is inherently damaging to the environment a non-patriarchal society that embraces female qualities of harmony with nature would be less damaging.