Animal Imagery And The Pre-modern Poetry Of War Among The Arabian Bedouin

Given the importance of the role of the Salfah narrative and poetry in recording tribal history in Arabia, and its deep rooting in the ways and values of Bedouin life, it is unsurprising that the oral poetry of the region, both connected to and independent of related narratives, deals with the subject of war and camel raiding to a great extent. Among the key features of poetry on this subject is the frequency with which the poets use imagery, particularly that of animals, to illuminate the characters and events of conflict. It is therefore worthwhile to examine the importance of animal imagery in poetry of this type. Kurpershoek pointed out that in the collection of poems of Ad-Dindan, references to the appearances and qualities of camels alone make up more than one third of his total verses , whereas descri ptions of rain and supplications to God only make up approximately 9% and 7% respectively. Animal imagery therefore clearly has an important place in the repertoire of the oral poet. When used in poetry discussing conflict, the images of animals take on a variety of roles, all of which ultimately aim to extol the virtues of the tribe within the values of Bedouin society; Ingham lists these as "courage, fortitude, loyalty and respect for the women of the tribe," Sowayan added that in war the Bedouin warrior is chiefly concerned with becoming renowned for his hardiness and valour. In this essay I aim to demonstrate that the way in which particular animals are used in the poetry of raiding and war, and how they relate to the values of tribal society in pre-modern Arabia, broadly fall into three main categories, all intended to praise the tribe and its warriors.

The first of these categories is imagery which directly praises the members of the tribe in question. This is achieved by praising them for the demonstration of the qualities and values expected by tribal society. One of the ways this is demonstrated in poetry is by likening members of the tribe to animals praised for their bravery and noblesse. Ingham wrote that the image of the falcon, to imply bravery and fierceness was common , and we find a good example in a poem by Ad-Dindan:

???? ??????? ????? ??? ???? ???? ?? ???? ??????

"As for al-Jnedi, his bravery is worthy of my praise, Like a noble falcon plummeting down when called by the falconer"

Sowayan included a verse where the poetic voice extols his own nobility, again likening himself to a bird:

"These are the words of a fearless man. I am a noble hunting bird"

These verses demonstrate that hunting birds, particularly the falcon, are used to express the nobility and bravery of the members of the tribe. Both verses make an explicit reference to bravery, 'his bravery is worthy of praise' and 'these are the words of a fearless man', and then liken the character in question to a 'noble' bird. Hunting birds are always used to directly praise a tribe and its members for extolling the martial values that governed tribal society at the time.

In addition to falcons, Holes and Abu Athera argued that "predators at the top of the food chain, like falcons of various kinds, eagles, lions.are always used to represent the alpha male of the human species-noble, single-minded, and brave." Lions feature frequently in the poetry of Ad-Dindan to glorify the warriors of his own tribe, the Duwasir:

?? ????? ??? ?? ????? ????? ???? ???? ???? ??? ??????? "We called out to our kinsmen, whose courage works marvels, Fellow-clansmen like lions with ferociously fanging jaws."

Here the verse makes an explicit reference to two tribal values tied into the image of a lion: bravery and ferocity in battle. In the poem attached to the Salfah of the war between the Duwasir and the Sharif of Mecca, Ad-Dindan uses lions again to demonstrate the nobility and bravery of his tribesmen:

?? ???? ????? ???? ?????? ??? ??????? ?? ??????? ?????? "And all day long cheered the fighters on to even greater bravery, Protectors of the chaste maidens who on the day of battle turn into lions".

Here Ad-Dindan praises the Duwasir for the bravery in the first hemistich, and then praises their nobility in protecting the women of the tribe, and their ferocity in battle as 'lions' in the second. The use of images of predators by the poet serves to glorify the tribe for their bravery, ferocity and nobility in combat, it is noteworthy that hunting birds and lions are only used to praise the virtues of the tribe of the poet, and never to undermine the honour or exaggerate the power of an enemy.

Another use of animal imagery in Nabati battle poetry is to explain and praise the skill and deadliness of warriors in combat. One repeated image used to this end is that of the attacking Kite, as seen in Ad-Dindan when describing a camel raid:

??? ??????? ?????? ? ?????? "They are like kites: pouncing, flying up and pouncing again."

Similarly when discussing a cavalry charge he writes: ?? ???? ??? ??????? ??? ?? ???? ???? ???? ????? "Or like kites swooping down, its attack came in one plunge, Then soaring to the sky, only to wheel back and make another dive"

In these verses Ad-Dindan uses the image of attacking kites to describe the agility and frenzied charges and wheels of the cavalry in attacking their enemy. It serves to both explain and vividly retell the image of the battle in the minds of the audience, and to praise the tribe's warriors for their skill on horseback and their courage in repeatedly attacking the enemy. However the imagery used in describing battle skill is not limited to birds, Ingham cited an example of a snake being used in much the same way:

"I am from the heart of the Al Murra, like a dark cloud over the enemy, Like a snake nurtured in stony ground, whose drink is the dew and poison of the ground"

Far from the solely negative image of a snake prevalent in Western literature, here it is used to express the skill and deadliness of the subject in battle, and therefore increase his renown as a great warrior, the aim of battle that Sowayan identified. Along with the images of kites we have seen, this type of usage is used to directly to praise the tribe's warriors for their skill, and their bravery, both of which are key values of the society and the aim of a Bedouin warrior.

The final example of an animal image being used to directly praise the tribe is that of the hobbled camel. Kurpershoek explains that this image "indicates the commitment of the Duwasir not to yield and to defend their herds at all cost." This is clearly demonstrated by Ad-Dindan in the following verses:

?? ???? ????? ????? ????? "Cavalrymen whose retreat is like that of hobbled camels." ?? ?????? ??????? ? ????? ???? "The camels are hobbled in iron chains and driven steadily." In these examples the image of a hobbled camel is an explicit reference to the practise of chaining the legs of camels so they cannot flee or easily be herded away. In using this image to describe the actions of the cavalry or the cavalry themselves Ad-Dindan indicates that they were brave and unwilling to yield to their enemy or to retreat. This exemplifies the values of bravery and fortitude that members of tribal society were expected to adhere to and thus serves to praise the tribe for their bravery.

The examples we have seen so far have been of images used to directly praise the members of the tribe for upholding the tribal values of bravery, fortitude, nobility, skill in battle and protecting the tribe's women. However animal imagery is also used to praise the tribe and its members indirectly. One of the ways in which it does this is by describing the tribe's enemy. This is done by making the enemy seem large and powerful, as demonstrated in the following verses: ??????? ??? ?? ?? ??? ??? ?? "Their palms are protected against hordes of howling wolves." ???? ??? ??? ?????? ?????? "Their fighting men are numerous as locusts from Thihamah."

In the first category of imagery usage we noted that images of predators are often used to praise the tribe for their honour and bravery. In the first verse however, it is the enemy that is described as a predator; wolves. This image is designed to heighten the sense that the enemy facing the tribe is dangerous and fierce in battle. This means that by overcoming such an enemy the tribe has demonstrated its bravery, fortitude and skill in battle, and in doing so gains renown for its actions. The second verse likens the tribe's enemy to locusts, instantly conjuring an image of a swarming mass in the mind of the listener, and therefore alluding to the vast numbers of enemy confronted by a comparably small number of warriors from the tribe. This once again serves to indirectly glorify the members of the poet's own tribe, as by winning a battle despite being heavily outnumbered, they again demonstrate the martial virtues demanded by tribal society. Ad-Dindan also uses animal imagery to describe the fear instilled by the Duwasir into their enemies:

? ?? ?????? ????? ???? ???? ?? ??????? ? ??????? ?????? "And if they marched south the enemy's horsemen evaded them, Like gazelles and oryxes skittering behind their leading female."

This again demonstrates how animal imagery used to describe an enemy indirectly praises the poet's tribe; Ad-Dindan's descri ption of the flight of the Duwasir's enemy as like gazelles and oryxes suggests a panicked escape as though being chased by a powerful predator. In this case the predator would be the Duwasir. In this way Ad-Dindan uses animal imagery in describing the enemy to associate his tribe with the attributes associated with predatory animals discussed earlier in subtler way. The examples we have seen from Ad-Dindan of using animal imagery to praise the Duwasir through his descri ption of their enemies demonstrate how animal imagery can be used to praise the tribe indirectly, either through alluding to the effect they had on their enemies or by highlighting how much larger the enemy was than his own tribe.

The final employment of animal imagery we shall discuss is also used to praise the poet's tribe indirectly. In this category animal imagery is used to emphasise the size of a battle and the speed with which it was fought. The size of the battle is usually conveyed using images of large groups of animals. In the poem of the Salfah of Al-Khwer, Ad-Dindan writes:

??? ????? ???? ???? ????? "Like a covey of sand grouse whizzing through the air in close formation."

In the poem of the Salfah of az-Zi'biyyah he described the Duwasiri cavalry as:

??? ?????? ??? ??? ?????? "Swarming over the enemy like locusts from Thihamah."

These images of swarms of locusts and flocks of sand grouse perform two tasks. They first of all give an indication that there were a large number of people involved in the battle, and also give an indication of the confusion of battle as large numbers of men from both sides charged and became mixed together in a swirling, fighting mass. It also implies skill on horseback, as the images while chaotic, are controlled; the poet informs the audience that the cavalry rode in formation just as a flock of birds or a swarm of locusts. As with the descri ption of an enemy, using animal imagery to describe the battle, in this case specifically the scale and chaos of battle, allows the poet to indirectly praise the members of his tribe. Here the imagery is used to demonstrate that the tribe's men showed the bravery and skill needed to triumph in the circumstances of combat. Nabati war poetry also uses animals to express the speed of battle, in the Salfah of the Dhafir and Ibn Sa'dun we find: ???? ???? ???? ????? ? ????? "It (the battle) resembles an ostrich at which guns have fired and missed."

In this example, Hamud Bin Suwet uses the image of a fleeing ostrich to both inject excitement into the poem, but also to highlight the challenging nature of the battle fought. The speed of the ostrich also implies the speed with which the Dhafiri cavalry fought. This, much like the previous example suggests their skill in battle and their bravery. Thus by using the simple image of an ostrich to describe the battle, the poet is able to conjure multiple images and expected actions in the minds of his audience, and in doing so glorifies the tribe's actions and its members.

The use of animal imagery in Nabati war poetry can be divided into neat partitions; there are, as we have seen, three broad categories of the use of animal imagery: praising the tribe and its members, describing the enemy and describing the nature of the battle. The use of animal imagery in all of these categories is aimed at demonstrating that tribe's members ought to be praised for their adherence to tribal values: bravery, fortitude, respecting the tribe's women, loyalty and skill in battle, as well as preserving the memory of the deeds of previous generations in the tribe as examples to those that follow. Whereas, in the first category, the poet uses animal imagery as direct similes and metaphors to praise the members of his tribe, animal imagery used to describe the enemy or the nature of battle is used to indirectly praise the tribe, often by implying the tribe's qualities through the weakness or indeed strength of its enemy, or through the described ferocity of the battle that took place.

Furthermore, individual animals and classes of animals have specific attributes and tend to fall into only one category of usage; birds used in hunting, lions and most other predators are exclusively used to directly praise the tribe's bravery, its protection of its women and its nobility. The hobbled camel image always shows that the tribe's members would not retreat. Images of gazelles, oryxes and ostriches are used to express speed, either of a fleeing enemy or the battle itself. And images of locusts and flocks of birds are used to express the size and scale of battles.

Bibliography

Holes, Clive & Abu Athera, Said Salman, Poetry and Politics in Contemporary Bedouin Society, Ithaca, 2009

Ingham, Bruce, The "Salfah" as a Narrative Genre, Asian Folklore Studies, Vol 52, No 1, 1993, pp5-32

Ingham, Bruce, Arabian Diversions, Reading: Ithaca Press, 1997

Kurpershoek, Marcel, Heartbeat: Conventionality and Originality in Najdi Poetry, Asian Folklore Studies, Vol 52, No 1, 1993, pp33-74

Kurpershoek, Marcel, Oral Poetry and Narratives from Central Arabia: 1 The Poetry of Ad-Dindan, EJ Brill, 1994

Sowayan, Saad A, Nabati Poetry: The oral poetry of Arabia, University of California Press, 1985