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What Is Daoism?

An introduction to Daoism

Date : 05/12/2020

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Alexander

Uploaded by : Alexander
Uploaded on : 05/12/2020
Subject : Religious Studies

What is Daoism?

Daoism, sometimes spelt Taoism, is difficult to define. Guoqing (2020) writes that Daoism is sometimes separated as a philosophy and a religion, though Littlejohn (2009) argues this is an antiquated and reductive distinction. Having thought to have begun from at least 450 BCE, Fung (2018) writes that Daoism originated on a backdrop of pre-existent ancient Chinese cosmological models and folk beliefs. Confucianism also shares many concepts with Daoism, though Laizu and Master Zhou both challenge the tradition in their writings. It is hard to separate Daoism from these beliefs and thus it is hard to highlight what makes it unique. These are but some of the reasons why it is difficult to pinpoint when Daoism began and what defines it.

Littlejohn (2009) states that Daoism follows a master-student lineage transition, in which early practitioners would claim to have inherited teachings from a previous master and would then teach those on to the next generation. Daoism s early development is seen by Littlejohn to have been in three phases, 450 BCE to 310 BCE, 310 to 220 BCE and 220 to 139 BCE. Within these periods key texts were written and concepts defined, however, there is a great variety of thought to be found within Daoism. Daoist traditions have existed as separate communities that live together which followed common religious rituals, as ascetic practitioners living in isolation, and as active participants society and even politics.

Many books on Daoism have been written, received and reinterpreted. Clearly, Daoism does not exist as a monolithic block. Littlejohn (2009) compares the Daoist master-student lineage system as being like a kudzu vine, having different stems starting from different masters which spread in new directions. Many of these lineages have evolved into regulated and organized religious traditions that operate today. Today, the concepts that makeup Daoism continue to be received and performed in new and innovative ways, continuing Daoism s evolution. In this article, I will outline the three early formulaic texts to Daoism and some of the key concepts of the system of belief.

The Daodejing
(450BCE-310BCE)

Fung (2018) writes His revelatory insights from Yijing took him to a breakthrough, seeing a much bigger picture. Humans are parts of a huge system the universe. There is a heavenly way for everything, tangible or non-tangible . It is notable that Laizu is thought to have studied Yijing, commonly referred to the I Ching or book of changes. This is much older work and marrying the begging of Daoism which much older Chinese cosmological beliefs.

The beginning of Daoism is often seen as synonymous as the composition of the Daodejing, which is the oldest book in the Daoist canon. Though it could be argued that there were isolated ascetic practitioners of Daoism before the composition of the book, whether these practitioners identified as Daoist themselves has not been verified.

Translating to The classic of Dao and De , the Daodejing has over 700 commentaries written on it. It has had a profound impact on Chinese thought and culture, influencing calendar dates, medicine, politics and more. Littlejohn (2009) writes that the book is said to have been written by Laizu in 560 BCE, though this is almost certainly incorrect. Laizu not only translates to old masters , suggesting more than one author, but also the text has been discovered fragmented in different bamboo blocks. There are debates between translators on how the book should be organised for the same reason. This has led some to suggest that the texts formulated over a prolonged period and composed by multiple authors.

The Daodejing is not arranged to develop a systematic argument, Littlejohn (2009) describes it as an anthology with an overarching theme . The book itself is written in both prose and poetry and has not always existed in its eighty-one chapters. It discusses the nature of reality and favourable patterns of behaviour to live in harmony with the Dao. Rather than a rulebook of behaviour and beliefs, it is described by guidance on how to live harmoniously the universe. The key themes in the Doadejing are discussed in the section entitled Core Beliefs .

The Zhuangzi
(312 BCE)

Master Zhou, who is credited with composing the Zhuangzi by many Daoist traditions, is said by Littlejohn (2009) and Fung (2018) to have taught at Jiaxis academy. Described by Littlejohn (2009) as a Daoist think tank , it produced many philosophical texts during the warring states period. These were notably anti-Confucian, the group seeming to have blamed this tradition for the political instability of the era.

Like the Daodejing, original blocks of the Zhuangzi have been discovered, which raise questions to whether the text had a singular author. The chapters are ordered as inner and outer chapters, though there is debate on when it was first arranged it its current form. There is an older lost Zhuangzi, the copy currently in circulation containing fewer chapters, which was edited by Guo Xiang in 312 CE.

Fung (2018) writes written by Zhuangzi and his students, is filled with fables written in some of the most eloquent writings of their time. The book makes his ideologies approachable yet profound. He is able to relate the abstract concepts associated with Dao to a personal, soulful, and practical level.

The Zhuangzi expanded on many of the ideas found in the Daodejing, though there are literary styles utilised not found in its predecessor.

Master Zhou seemed to reject Confucianism ideas, Confucius depicted to engage with dialogues with Laizu, in which Confucius is receiving lessons. Fantasy elements are also often utilised, characters from Chinese folk law having adventures which express Daoist lessons. It is not written around a central narrative, but again is more of an anthology of ideas. The key themes in the Zhuangzi are discussed in the section entitled Core Beliefs .

The Huainanzi
(139 BCE)

The Huainanzi, also known as the Master of Huainan , is said to be composed by Liu An (139 BCE), or in some accounts the eight gentlemen of Huainan. The book consists of twenty-one essays, with a particular focus on rulership, as the Daoist intellectuals at the time wished to persuade the current ruler to move away from Confucianism. During what is known as the Huainan academy 160-120 BCE, Daoist masters gathered to write texts by emperor Wdui. Unfortunately, many of these texts have been lost, though the Master of Huainan survived.

The book was written during a period of political unrest, which explains its focus on politics, a subject that had been discussed in the Daodejing and Zhuangzhu, though both of which advised against its pursuit or for rulers to generally not enforce their will upon others. Not just containing information on the political treatise, the book discusses cosmology, astronomy, inner qi cultivation and spiritual transformation. This concept can be found in the previous books, though were at as specifically explained as found in the Huanianzi.

In the Daodejing and Zhuangzhu Confucian ideas are clearly rejected, though notably they are blended with Daoist ideals in the Huainanzi, such as the five phases. The five phases perceive all things to be in constant change. While key Daoist concepts are discussed in the previous books, the Huainanzi fleshes out earlier ideas, giving specific advice on how to pursue immortality. This was thought to be done by avoidance of the five grains, breathing exercises and meditation, though this is not true for all Daoist traditions. This direct advice sets it apart of the previous books and gave Daoist practitioners guidelines to follow.

Key concepts

The following quotes used from the Daodejing at taken from Derek Lin s 1998 translation, which can be found online. A link can be accessed in the section entitled References .

Dao

Dao produces the One

The One gives birth to two,

Two produces three,

Three produces the myriad creatures.

Littlejohn (2009) write the Chinese character for Dao can mean Walking down the road to one s farm or abode , whereas Fung (2018) writes it means the way . Dao is used as both a noun and a verb, meaning the way and following the way . It is known as the wordless teaching , as in the Daodejing it says that the Dao cannot be named. It also claims that the more one tries to discuss the Dao, the less they are said to understand it. The ineffability of the Dao is at the core of Daoism, it is commonly thought to permeate and connect all things, and that all living things are created from it.

It is from the Dao that yin and yang originate from, yin and yang manifest harmony, and from the intermingling of these three elements that all things emerge from. Yin, yang and harmony are all types of qi or spiritual energy. To be a Daoist is to follow the Dao. To do this, this Daoist must follow their inborn nature through spontaneous action. In the Zhanzhu, following the Dao is likened to a butcher slicing through a cow. By following the sinews of the cow, the butcher cuts through the meat effortlessly. Traditions differ on how best to do this. To have an experience of the Dao is referred to as Huang hu.



De

Cultivate Dao in your person,

and the de you develop will be genuine.

Littlejohn (2009) writes that de can be translated as excellence, virtue, power or charismatic force , though in Daoism it often refers to as a process. In Daoism, is one cultivates Dao, and then they get De . If one could observe and understand all the natural principles of Dao and engage with them in a Dao s way, then de is achieved.

De is fulfilling the way, as Fung (2018) writes At the very beginning, only nothing exists. There is no existence and no name. This is the source of one unified entity. Everything is in it and nothing is formed. Everything needs it to be formed. This process is de. If someone is following their inner nature, spontaneously and without effort, then they are following the Dao. The act of following the Dao is De. Going along with this natural principle is a way to live with De.

Wu-Wei

Loss and more loss,

Until one reaches unattached action,

With unattached action, there is nothing one cannot do,

Take the world by constantly applying non-interference,

The one who interferes,

is not qualified to take the world.

Wu-Wei is often translated as non-action or not acting , though Fung (2018) writes that `Wei` ( ) refers to actions taken with intent or rationale behind them, while `Wu` ( ) is referring to a negation that brings about absence or emptiness. To act in accordance with Wu-Wei is to act without ego, without trying to accrue wealth or personal benefits. To do this, one much act with and be aligned to the Dao.

Littlejohn (2009) writes Wu-Wei is similar to a kind of natural or spontaneous conduct that occurs without deliberation and intention. It comes directly from the storehouse of Dao and its limitless de . Within Daoist traditions Wu-Wei refers to an action that fulfils De. It means empty action, as empty action can be fuelled by the Dao. Rather than not acting, Wu-Wie promotes acting with the Dao and its De.

Rou

Nothing in the world is softer or weaker than water,

Yet nothing is better at overcoming the hard and strong.

Rou is translated by Fung (2018) to mean softness or flexibility. The idea of hard things being overcome by soft things, such as water, is a recurring trope in the Daodejing and the Zhuangzi. The analogy is that by being still and not asserting ones will on others, flexibility is achieved which should help to produce harmonious action. This was perhaps a product of the political unrest during the time the texts are thought to be composed, and a call to turn away from Confucianism in governance.

Fung (2018) writes This places classic Daoism as a philosophical school in direct opposition with classic Confucianism, in which the emphases on cheng ( ), shan ( ), ren ( ), and junzi ( ), who is supposed to carry out li ( ) all the time, are relatively strong and rigid, positioning it on the yang side in the philosophical milieu. Within the Yijing the qualities and yin and yang are discussed at great length. Yang is described as having ridged, forceful qualities while yang is receptive and yielding. Traditionally, Confucianism values yang higher than yin. For Daoism to favour Rou, flexibility, and softness, it aligns itself with yin, and thus as opposition to Confucianism.

Correlational thinking

When the world knows beauty as beauty, ugliness arises,

When it knows good as good, evil arises,

Thus being and non-being produce each other,

Difficult and easy to bring about each other.

Daoist traditions commonly that they can cultivate Rou through correlational thinking. Rather than conceiving the world in binary categories, Daoist s promote focusing on correlations rather than oppositions. For instance, rather than seeing something as long , Daoist s would argue that in comparison to another item, it would appear short. Moreover, the Daodejing claims things become evil once people view things are good, people only steal when people are categorized as thieves. To some Daoists, categorizing reality can lead it to become inharmonious, leading them to promote flexibility and understanding of other points of views.

This may seem that Daoist s do not believe in conceptions of good and evil. While that may be true for some traditions and schools of thought that have developed from Daoism, traditions such as the Celestial Master Tradition, promotes living by a moral code. Fung (2018) writes that the Zhuangzi suggests good and evil does exist, thus living by a moral code is necessary and furthermore, it will impact other aspects of one s life. As all things are connected by the Dao, Daoist s commonly state the difference between I and You is conceptual. Fung (2018) presents moral conduct as being a rational deduction from this belief.

Transformation

Things become strong and then grow old,

This is called contrary to the Tao,

That which is contrary to the Tao will soon perish.

Within Daoist literature and thought, a commonly recurring trope is the quest for immortality and the idea that one can become immortal from following the Dao. Littlejohn (2009) writes some Daoist s believe that Laizu and Master Zhou are Daoist immortals known as Zhenren. As the world is seen to be in a constant state of change through the intermingling of yin and yang, it was theorized one could learn to control the state of change of one s body. Littlejohn writes that this is commonly referred to as the five phases cosmological viewpoint. It holds that each individual is passing through the phases at different intervals, and recognition of these stages can help lead to spiritual transformation.

Littlejohn writes that Daoist literature often discusses both inner and outer transformation, which were thought to cultivate immortality. The external transformation was brought about by elixirs, recipes for potions fabled to give eternal life. The Daoist master would also have a corresponding ritual, and corresponding times, such as drinking the elixir at the time of the rising sun. Non-perishable metals were used in these elixirs. Meditation practices were used for internal transformation, in early Daoism these meditation techniques revolved around visualization, either of ghosts or powerful supernatural beings. Stillness mediations were also used, which resemble Buddhist practices focused on silencing the mind. If one could successfully control their five phases transformation, then one can become a Zhenren, which was the purpose of external and internal meditation.


References

Fung, V. (2018) A Way of Music Education: Classic Chinese Wisdoms, Print ISBN-13: 9780190234461, Published to Oxford Scholarship Online: January 2018 DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780190234461.001.0001

Guoqing, Y. (2020) Laozi Research College, Institute of Religious Studies, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 D. B. Yaden et al. (eds.), Rituals and Practices in World Religions, Religion, Spirituality and Health: A Social Scientific Approach 5, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-27953-0_8

Littlejohn, R. (2009) Daoism: An Introduction, I.B.Tauris

Lin, D, (1998) Tao Te Ching Online Translation, https://taoism.net/tao/tao-te-ching-online-translation/ [accessed 01/12/2020 15:04]

Tang, Y. (2015) Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity and Chinese Culture, 1991: 67 80 Foreign Language Teaching and Research Publishing Co., Ltd and Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2015 Y. Tang, Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity and Chinese Culture, China Academic Library, DOI 10.1007/978-3-662-45533-3_12

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