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How Has Sampling In Modern Western Music Questioned What We Consider Creative?

Date : 29/06/2020

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Olly

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Uploaded on : 29/06/2020
Subject : Music

How Has Sampling in Modern Western Music Questioned What We Consider Creative?

Olly

Waynflete project

Introduction

The use of samples in a modern song has become an essential ingredient to a top-selling hit, whether it be of the Hip-Hop, Pop, or Electronic genre. According to Collins Dictionary: To sample is to record (a sound) and feed it into a computerised synthesiser so that it can be reproduced at any pitch [7]. This definition masks the more ethical and moral sides of the practice, because sampling [7] is also often known among some Hip-Hop artists as copying another s idea and passing it off as your own . Although this essay won t make detailed exploration of copyright laws or artists methodology to find loopholes in the law in order to find a particularly catchy hook for their song, it will explain how certain sampling can be used creatively and effectively while other applications of sampling display the opposite of originality. There is a wide range in uses of sampling in the genre of Hip-Hop, which will be the main focus, but even though sampling is more commonly known as a digital act, it can also be seen in classical music from as early as the 1500s, notably in composers such as J.S. Bach. Therefore, I believe a more apt definition of sampling is: When musicians or pieces of their music are sampled, parts of their music are used by other musicians in their own work. This definition does entail the computerisation and synthesising of the sample but also includes the wider scope of where a sample can come from. Moreover, the definitions of sampling and remixing have substantial overlap, where remixing focuses on how each part of the music can be developed and placed together whereas sampling emphasises the intertextuality of different parts of music and how different samples fit with each other.

The essence of creativity is something very difficult to define. The Latin word creare from which creativity is derived, means to make something exist [8], but The Oxford Dictionary entry suggests original ideas [9] which very much contradicts the use of musical sampling. However, other definitions refer to exploring imagination which certain uses of sampling clearly involve, and the definition activity of original invention [10] which would also be apt for explaining my argument. There are two known categories of creativity: Historical Creativity (H-creativity) and Psychological Creativity (P-creativity). H-creativity consists of inventions and ideas never before seen by mankind, whereas P-creativity is where one would use a previous idea or opinion and apply it in a new way by bringing the idea into a different world and context. P-creativity is the category of creativity that sampling in western music comes under, due to the factors of creativity being the change in the sonic profile of a certain recording.

In this argument, a self-produced definition of creativity will be used, where the artist must show intellectual inventiveness [11] in order to be creative. This would include clear development of the sample from the quoted song, as well as the sample being played in an accompanying environment that is entirely different to the sound world from which it was taken. In this situation, I shall call the artist of the original song Artist 1, and the artist who cuts out a sample from that song will be called Artist 2. So, if for instance, Artist 2 uses the sample from Artist 1 s song over a drumbeat which is strikingly similar to the drumbeat in Artist 1 s song, and very few further variants are deployed, then that sample has not been creatively used because Artist 2 has not implemented exploring imagination in the new use of the sample, but has merely tried to create a copied song, to pass off as their own.

However, contentious sampling like this has often paid off for artists such as Ed Sheeran, whose song Shape of You [12] is the most streamed track of all time (Spotify). In this song, the verse melody is directly copied from TLC s No Scrubs [13] (Information from Whosampled.com[14]) without initially purchasing the rights, and yet it is the most popular song in the world. Subsequently, when Sheeran was found out, the writers of No Scrubs [13] were awarded co-writing credits. This is due to Popular music being predominantly market-driven [40] and therefore artists like Ed Sheeran are willing to cut corners in the industry in order to make the best revenue. The popularity of the record implies that it has something in particular which draws so many people to listen to it. Hence, I believe songs like this have questioned the meaning of the term to be creative because Ed Sheeran has certainly not proved himself to have displayed exploring imagination in the production of the single, even though he has earned around $50 million so far from that song alone [15]. Although certain laws restrict complete pastiching without citation, the boundaries have been stretched on whether a song has been creatively produced or not through alternating instrumentations, effects, context and many other factors, which implies that the fundamentals and definitions of musical creativity are changing due to the growing trend and different uses of sampling. To illustrate, the song Out of the Water that I produced entirely through sampling, attempts to creatively engage all the samples mentioned in this essay.

Sampling originally stemmed from the electronification of instruments like the bass and electric guitars, which played vital roles in the growth of Rock, Punk, Soul and Jazz genres through the late 20th century. Nelson George divulges that Sampling represents the kind of general schism that tore through the rock world when folk purists chastised Bob Dylan for plugging in electric instruments in 1965 and jazz purists attacked Miles Davis for rejecting acoustic instruments in the early 70s [1]. However, if everyone refuted the idea of advancement in musical ideas, then genres would not develop, and artists such as Miles Davis and Bob Dylan have proved that pioneering change can be very successful Bob Dylan is a 1960s- 70s icon who sold millions of records, and Miles Davis was voted by BBC radio and Jazz FM listeners as the best jazz musician to have ever lived[36], with his album Kind of Blue (1959)[17] being the most successful jazz album in history[36]. This essay will include the assessment of the difference in use of samples as mood setters or as part of a beat. These differ in their effect, but both individually can add intellectual inventiveness to a record. Finally, this essay will mainly focus on the Hip-Hop genre, and how changing the sonic profile of certain levels to the music, such as the vocals, bass or beat can define whether the production of a song can be deemed creative. There will always be a grey area in whether the production of a Hip-Hop track has involved intellectual inventiveness [11], however, because Hip-Hop was founded on the manipulation of pre-existing material [37] which has led to the multi-million success of Kanye West, but also the court downfall for later mentioned Biz Markie.


Use of Sampling as a Mood Setter

In the past 30 years, short dialogues or sounds which are often defined as skits [27], are used at the beginning, during, or at the end of a song to set a mood or to convey a theme. For example, Primal Scream, an initially alternative rock band, allowed a producer called Andy Wetherall to re-mix one of their songs called Loaded [28], which was part of their best-selling album Screamadelica (1991). In this re-mix, Wetherall included dialogue from the film Wild Angels [29] with the actor Peter Fonda speaking, using it at the start of the song before the beat comes in, which creates an atmosphere of freedom due to Fonda saying We want to do what we wanna do [29], as well as And we wanna be loaded, and have a good time [29]. This dialogue is then dispersed among the music throughout the song, continuing the feel-good aura. This is an activity of original invention [9] because of the complete change in context to the skit, from the original to the sampled. Furthermore, the aged style of the film recording gives a dated fuzz to the sound at the time of the skit in the song and therefore helps create the retro and vintage atmosphere to the song and sound world. I think this example of sampling is inspired as it is imaginative changing the contexts of a skit from a 1966 rebellion-inspired film to a feel-good electronica song.

Moreover, Anderson .Paak uses the dialogue device in ten of his sixteen songs on the album Malibu (2016). This is to draw attention to an ongoing theme involving the city near Los Angeles called Malibu. For example, the skit at the beginning of Room in here [30] comprises of dialogue taken from a surfer documentary called Pot smoking surfers [31] which was filmed in Malibu. What we hear at prelude to the song is Besides surfing, what do you think about love? For instance. which provides an apt foreground to the song which is about people in love (with the main hook of the chorus being Baby there s Room in Here ). Once again, exploring imagination is evident through the use of an unknown video to create and capture the atmosphere of this certain song perfectly. .Paak also deploys the Israeli national anthem Hatikvah [32] as a sample at the start of the song Come Down [34] to establish the vein of the song. Hatikvah [32] is one of the few national anthems in a minor key, and it has a solemn tone which directly correlates to the title of the song Come Down [34]. In Out of the Water , I have used sampling to set the mood of the song through the dialogue of Yogi Gerry Lopez discussing his out of body experience when surfing, which is also used in Heart Don t Stand a Chance (Malibu)[35] by Anderson .Paak.

The recording in Out of the Water has been compressed, as well as having added reverb and ambience in order to give a distant timbre to convey this out-of-body experience that Lopez had. This accentuation of what the mood-setter sample is trying to achieve through plug-ins is creative in my opinion because the plug-ins and EQ balance of reducing higher frequencies is my take on how this sample would create this certain sound world. Consequently, I believe there is intellectual inventiveness [11] displayed in the use of the sample. This dialogue is accompanied by a droning sample from Father I Stretch My Hands by Pastor T. L. Barrett as well as a vinyl sound effect to add to the husky and distant timbre of the dialogue of Lopez. This sample is heavily developed in Out of the Water due to the mysterious and eerie mood that is initially set. A Pitch Shifter has been used to shift the sample down 3 semitones and to allow the sample to agree with the key of the song (D minor), as well as an overdrive plug-in, EQ and reverb being added to the sample to aid the spirit that I attempted to create through this track.


Sampling in Hip-Hop as a Beat

Akin to renaissance, baroque and classical music, much of Hip-Hop includes using previous melodies and rhythms but as hooks instead, as they are looped and played over and over again. A hook is a memorable figure, pregnant with rhythmic character which embodies the song s basic gesture [2], as defined in the article Popular music by Richard Middleton and Peter Manuel, and consists of a drum beat, bass line and any vocals or instrumentals that are piled on top, as well as verse that will be rapped over the hook accompaniment. It is important to know that all of these components (but seldom the rapping) can be sampled from other tracks and hits. A more memorable figure [2], like Jump [3] by Kris Kross is a better hook because the listener is more likely to remember the song, due to the repetitive, catchy shouting of the word Jump as vocals/rap in the hook accompanied by a memorable, whiny instrumental that sticks in the listener s mind. On the other hand, a hook with more rhythmic character [2], such as the syncopated hook in California Love [4] by 2Pac (where there are cross-rhythms between instrumentals and drum beat), is a more compelling hook because the listener will enjoy it more and so will admire the song more. For example, Maria Witek and Eric Clarke state in their essay on Syncopation, Body-Movement, and Pleasure in Groove Music [5], that essential human pleasure [5] is particularly related to musical groove. [5] and that Structurally, music associated with groove is often characterised by rhythmic complexity in the form of syncopation, [5] as heard in 2Pac s hook and proves that rhythmic complexity [5]is a cause of essential human pleasure [5]. Furthermore, with the vast musical technical advances that we have seen since the 1970s, Rhythmic character [2] has been taken to a new level with a wide range of sounds and beats that can now be achieved on a computer. Basslines are often the body of a hook in Hip-Hop and Funk songs in particular due to their repetitive nature and often syncopated figure. For example, Kanye West uses the House-style bassline in Mystery of Love [6] by Fingers Inc. in his song Fade [16] which gives the song a pulsating groove through the repetitive bassline. In Out of the Water , the hook used is primarily made up of two samples: the bassline which is from Mystery of Love [6], akin to that used in the aforementioned Fade [16], and the vocal hook is from the song I Get Lifted/Go to Church [18] by Barbara Tucker. This vocal sample is also used in Fade [16] by Kanye West, but in a different context created by West. This is one example of the sizeable number of producers who faithfully return to Soul and Funk as a means of linking their work to venerable musicians of the past. [38] and I believe this is so frequent due to the abundance of memorable figures [2] with rhythmic character [2] in Soul and Funk music particularly. Although the bassline sample has not been developed with any plug-ins or EQ, the I Get Lifted [18] hook has, in contrast, been heavily developed with plug-ins such as Fuzz-Wah pedal which creates a distant, mysterious feeling helping to capture the mood of the song. To aid this, some reverb is also added and the dynamics of the sample are widely ranged to manoeuvre it between the front and back of the texture.

16 bars after the introduction of the hook in Out of the Water , a soul-type, complex drum beat is introduced underneath the texture to give the song some forward motion. This sampled drum beat is taken from Soul and Sunshine by Harvey and the Phenomenals, which is of the soul genre, and therefore attaching it to an EDM House bassline is recontextualising the beat, implying exploring imagination has been used, and therefore, according to aforesaid definitions, creative writing too.


Opinions on Sampling in Hip-Hop

Nelson George believes The depth and complexity on a creatively sampled record have made live instrumentation seem, at best, an adjunct to record making. [1] This advance in technology has clearly created many new and interesting soundworlds, but George emphasises that the depth and complexity [1] can only be achieved on a record if it is has been creatively sampled [1]. This implies that the term intellectual inventiveness [11] must be involved in order for the sampled record to make live instrumentation an adjunct to record making [1].

A producer-songwriter called Mtume who wrote for Roberta Flack and was percussionist for Miles Davis, had a creative disdain [1] for sampling in his early career as he claimed Hip-Hop had a slavish reliance [1] on record sampling. Mtume had a grounding in street politics which has given him a provocative perspective on the evolution of black culture and music [1] which led him to believe that This was the first generation of African Americans to not be extending the range of music [1]- he claimed Sampling is nothing but Memorex music [1]. This statement is backed up by watered down tracks with long samples in them which have not involved exploring imagination in the production of them, for example, Ice Ice Baby [19] by Vanilla Ice which uses the bassline of Under Pressure by David Bowie and Queen. Although it is a song which has been successful, the bassline and drum beat is the only accompaniment to the rap in the song, and neither of the elements have been developed at all, but simply been cut out and stuck in, which agrees with the term Memorex music [1]. Mtume proves that Sampling James Brown s drum beats in a hip-hop album is like me sticking chapters from James Baldwin in my books and claiming his words are mine [1]. To sum up, he believes that both sampling someone else s drum beat and copying someone s writing is plagiarism, and should not be respected as anything else.

However, recontextualising someone else s sounds was how Hip-Hop began, and if all sampling was denounced as plagiarism, then Hip-Hop would not exist. This means that in order for the best-selling Hip-Hop artist to be successful and to not be affected by critics claiming that their records are Memorex music [1] they must produce songs that have exploring imagination and have used intellectual inventiveness [11] in the process of the production. In Mtume s words, artistic necrophilia [1] is as creative as sampling gets, which, as long as it is artistic , can be creative. There will always be differing views as to how creative some Hip-Hop beats are, but often this is due to the sentimentality from the song of which the sample has come, as in Nelson George s Hip-Hop America [1]. He explains: Sometimes when I hear a record I grew up with -say, Diana Ross I m Coming Out [20] produced by Bernard Edwards and Nile Rodgers - reused in a contemporary record, I get pissed. I rail against the lack of creativity in the hip-hop generation. I long for old familiar sounds to remain in their original context. [1]. George explains here how he believes there is a lack of creativity in the Hip-Hop generation, but this is his opinion due to certain songs such as I m coming out [20] (which was sampled in the Notorious B.I.G s Mo Money Mo Problems [21]-the song that I believe is being jibed at) being so special in his mind that he doesn t want them changed, developed or sampled. This, therefore, leads to the dilemma of the subjectivity of music taste. Everyone will know certain songs so well that, when they are sampled in a new song, the listener of the known song will not believe the sample is particularly creative due to the listener knowing the original song so well, and furthermore the listener is possibly likely to rail against the sample due to a certain sentimental value that they have for the original song, as Nelson George does for I m Coming Out [20]. Also, Rock and Pop artists that are strict about only writing their own material are often against their songs being sampled and can be defensive in their purist attitude of traditionality. For example, the Hip-Hop jazz-rap group Stetsasonic were sued by the 60s pop-rock band The Turtles due to uncited sampling in the song Talkin all that jazz [22], and a large court case between Gilbert O Sullivan and Biz Markie led to the song Alone again being recalled from all pressings and stopped from being sold completely [23]. This severely damaged Markie s career and was the first significant court case to hit the Hip-Hop world in terms of copyright law.


Conclusion

To conclude, I believe that the development and change in the context of a sample are the essential ingredients in order for a sample to be used creatively. A particular problem of non-creative sampling, however, is that certain tracks that have not been creatively produced with lack of contextual difference and lack of development can still be successful, like Ice Ice Baby [19] due to familiarity being attractive to the listeners of Western Pop music. This poses a problem to the future of Hip-Hop and other genres, as Mtume explained in the aforementioned Hip-Hop America [1] because there is no motive for artists to attempt to be particularly creative in their production of beats, as they can still sell millions of records whilst being boring . In Out of the Water , I think my best example of creative sampling is the inclusion of Street Fighter II sound effects, which are sounds from a Japanese game[39]. This proves that samples included in a track need not be of musical origin, just like skits, as mentioned previously. As such, I believe that exploring imagination is more prominent if this has been the case because sampling only questions the fundamentals of creativity when there is the question of how much development and change of context there has been. This is clearly not a problem for samples if the sample has not been in a musical context before. This shows that there is a wider scope of recorded sound than copyrighted tracks, and this scope should be adventured by Hip-Hop artists that are deemed creative during their production of a track.


Appendix

Time

Sample

Plug-in/FX

Reason for use

0 00

Vinyl sound effect

n/a

Vintage timbre to recording sound

0 00

Father I Stretch My Hands (Kanye West)

-Pitch Shifter

-Overdrive

-Reverb (a lot)

-EQ, cutting out frequencies above 4k Hz and reducing Mid frequencies

-Noise Gate

-Pitch Shifter makes the sample agree with the tonality of the new song

-Reverb to add mystery and space in the mix which conveys the setting of the dialogue

-EQ to dampen out the sound to create an underlying background of intro, setting the mood.

0 02

Gerry Lopez skit on Out of Body experience

-Reverb

-Ambience

Explains an out of body death experience while surfing which sets the mood for all other samples in the track. Reverb and ambience to create distance of the voice.

0 20

I Get Lifted sample

-Reverb and echo

-Fuzz-wah pedal

These vocals add to the out of body experience as if the speaker s soul is being lifted out of the water. The gospel singing with reverb and echo adds a church timbre and tone to the sample which hints at a close call with death and therefore heaven (soul lifted up). The fuzz-wah pedal plug-in sombres the sound world of this sample to take the motivational edge off it and to closer link it to the idea of the out of body experience.

0 50

Fade (West)/ Mystery of Love (Fingers Inc.) bassline reinforced with Boutique 78 kick drum

-No plug-ins on the bassline sample

-Enhanced kick and enhanced low frequencies (EQ) on the kick

The lack of development of this sample helps the raw feel of the house bassline which introduces a groove into the song, although the bassline is still in a minor key. (D minor)

1 05

Deep Inside (Hardrive)

n/a

Vocals hinting towards the body Deep inside the water.

1 25

Soul and Sunshine drum beat (Harvey and the Phenomenals)

n/a

This soul drum beat puts the song in a lighter mood and adds some direction to the hook.

2 00

Shine on Straight Arrow (Cris Williamson)

-Largely Pitch Shifted

-EQ-low freqs cut below 100Hz.

-Reverb and ambience added with compression.

-Sampled onto an Akai MPC mini MIDI keyboard so that the sample can be produced at any pitch, like at 2 21

The distortion of the pitch shifting makes the words hard to make out but the outline of Shine can be heard which links to the rising soul of the speaker.

2 49

Street Fighter II sound effects

n/a

In order to have the raw and original timbre of these game sounds, no plug-ins were applied. This sample introduces a new sound world which is open to interpretation for the listener.

3 05

Hatikvah National Israeli anthem in Hebrew

-Pitch Shifter

-Distortion

-EQ cutting out frequencies above 2k and enhancing lower frequencies.

-High level ambience, some reverb.

The distortion and ambience as well as the muffled, low frequency sound of this sample add to and accentuate the sombreness of the song, as it is one of the only national anthems in a minor key. In my opinion, the Hebrew singing sounds like a funeral song and is an apt way to fade out Out of the Water

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