Introduction
Academic achievement is a highly complex and difficult area of education to fully understand. However, as a year 3 primary school teacher there is no doubt that the academic achievement of students is of particular interest to me. Therefore, this essay shall try to understand one aspect of academic achievement in particular; that is, to what extent does self-worth or self-esteem effect the academic achievement of pupils? I shall begin by defining both self-worth and self-esteem, as well as, discussing the commonly used attitude scales as a form of measuring self-worth/self-esteem. This will be followed by the analysis of such work as Thompson (2003, 2005 and 2007), Covington (1984), Emler (2001) and Alves-Martins et al (2001). It will be suggested that perhaps there is support for the claim that, to some extent, self-worth or self-esteem may have an effect on academic attainment. This will be done by presenting the relevant evidence for such a position, critically evaluating it and discussing its implications. For instance, it appears as though pupils may display behaviours such as the tendency to compare themselves with others in a competitive environment and implementing strategies to avoid failure (rather than striving for success); wherein it is proposed that a pupil`s self-worth influences the probability of displaying such behaviours. When considering the implications of this, the possibilities for raising self-worth/self-esteem in the classroom will be discussed. In contradiction, to keep the essay balanced, research that questions the importance of self-worth (with respect to educational attainment) will be considered. Such as, the idea that many students with low academic achievement simply do not value education, and in many cases, actually display unfavourable attitudes towards it (Alves-Martins et al 2001). Additionally, I will also offer reflections on my own experiences in a Year 3 primary school classroom throughout the analysis of literature. I shall propose how these experiences support or challenge some of the above themes. Finally, the two arguments shall be drawn together in order to discuss the complexity of self-worth/self-esteem. For example, the theory that one's self-worth/self-esteem can change depending on our age. There is only a small amount of research that looks specifically at primary aged children so it may be difficult to identify the significance of self-worth/self-esteem to academic achievement in this age group. However, there may be emerging themes that have general applicability. Finally, it will be suggested that it could be advantageous to the academic achievement of pupils if strategies for improving self-worth/self-esteem were implemented into the classroom. The question being asked throughout this essay is - to what extent does self-worth or self-esteem affect the academic achievement of pupils?
What is self-worth?
For the sake of having a clear understanding throughout this essay it is sensible to establish a definition for both self-worth and self-esteem. The reason for the two terms being discussed in conjunction throughout this essay is their similarity when being defined. However, there could be a difference in that self-esteem may be seen as having more potential to fluctuate on a short-term basis. This distinction is drawn and acknowledged in this section. Firstly, the definitions of both self-worth and self-esteem will be outlined and analysed. Following this, a definition that will be used for the purpose of consistency throughout this essay will be explained based on the evidence presented.
In order to define self-worth I will begin with the Cambridge Dictionary (see ref, last accessed 15.02.13) which explains self-worth as; 'The value you give to your life and achievements'. Although broad, this definition starts us off nicely with the concept of valuing your own life and achievements. It could be said that the implication here is that an individual must have an idea of what they value in order to have an understanding of their own self-worth. Such an implication may be supported by Alves-Martins et al (2002) who put forward that self-worth is the discrepancy between an 'ideal' self and the actual self. Therefore, in this situation an 'ideal' self would represent the values of that individual through what attributes they see as admirable. As a result, it is perhaps suggested that if there is a wide gap between the ideal and real self, or a lack of understanding of an ideal self, the individual may experience low self-worth.
A similarity between self-worth and self-esteem could be identified by a definition presented by William James in his book Principles of Psychology. This is because the same definition is used for both self-esteem and self-worth on separate occasions. For example, Emler (2001) drew upon his definition when outlining self-worth and Mruk used James' work to define self-esteem. William James said that self-worth/self-esteem was success divided by pretensions. In such a case as a pupil becomes more successful (as they achieve more) for a constant amount of pretensions (claims to a particular status or quality) then the self-worth/self-esteem of such a pupil increases. On the other hand, if a pupil acquires more claims to a status or quality, but does not become anymore successful, then their self-worth/self-esteem would decrease. Perhaps, it may be claimed that this descri ption is similar to the relationship between a judgement of what is valuable to others and themselves and the evidence that you have done such things via successes. On the whole, it could be said that both self-worth and self-esteem require a certain amount of self-evaluation.
However, the possible differences between these two concepts must also be acknowledged. From the research gathered so far, the biggest potential difference between self-worth and self-esteem is the time scale on which it is being evaluated. Mruk (2006) highlighted this issue in particular when discussing the difficulties of defining self-esteem. Self-worth is presented by researchers as a longer term self-evaluation based on ideals in the future, whereas self-esteem is seen by Mruk (2006) and others as having the potential to fluctuate on a short-term basis depending on the situation at the time. Therefore, it is suggested here that an acknowledgement of such a potential difference is made. Although this is an important recognition to make, there is still a lot of evidence that the terms are used interchangeably. Also, as this essay is more focused on the relationship between these social concepts and academic achievement, it is judged that it will be clearer if the terms are defined together. Therefore, a definition that is intended to be interpreted as applying to both self-worth and self-esteem will be established now.
It is being put forward that both self-worth and self-esteem may be defined as a pupil's judgement of themselves (via evidence and opinion) of the value of their abilities, qualities and achievements (either in the past or in the future) in such a way that they are admired by others and or themselves. Here, the students are required to understand what is admired by others and themselves and compare themselves to this list of ideals or ideal form of themselves. A pupil with low self-worth would judge that their achievements, qualities and abilities are not to be admired (of low value). This in turn leads to them believing that they themselves are not to be admired or not worthy of respect; making them feel worth less than others. Thus self-worth is a complex issue which impacts on how people behave. In order to establish how it might affect academic achievement, it might be helpful to consider how it might be measured.
Using the self-worth scale
Now that a definition of self -worth and self-esteem has been established, may I suggest that it is worth discussing the most common method used to measure these social variables? Self-worth or self-esteem scales are widely used by a number of researchers in social science, it is therefore important to explore the effectiveness of such scales. The questions raised regarding the validity of these scales may compromise the validity of a number of studies contributing to this essay, for example, Thompson (2003, 2005 and 2007) or Pullman and Allik (2008). The understanding here is that if the validity of this research has been compromised, the significance of self-worth to the study of improving academic performance is much less clear. The reasons behind the development of self-esteem scales will be discussed, alongside an evaluation of Thompson and Dinnel's (2003) study into the accuracy of the Self-Worth Protection Scale. Following this, an evaluation of the use of self-reporting (a technique used with scales) will be made. Author Emler (2001) outlined the birth of the self-esteem scale when explaining that a shift in scientific thinking had occurred whereby 'attitudes' were seen as measurable. Emler (2001) introduces Professor Morris Rosenberg, a sociology professor at the University of Maryland, who saw self-esteem as an attitude towards the self, which prompted him to create the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale (RSES). Since then, there have been multiple adapted versions of the scale produced. The scale used by Thompson was the Self-Worth-Protection Scale (SWPS). Unfortunately, there is little research conducted that has tested the validity of this scale. However, Thompson and Dinnel (2003) did test its accuracy over a four week period. Undergraduate participants responded to self-reports that were designed to measure their self-worth protecting traits, and then responded to the same self-report 4 weeks later. Subscales were assessed based on whether similar answers were provided on both self-reports. Upon evaluation of their results, SWPS was supported and suggested to be an adequate process to use for aiding in identifying individuals who manifest self-worth protection in achievement situations. However, it could be said that the validity in the first scale was not considered and is therefore questionable. Moreover, social researcher Robins et al (2007) analysed the validity of a number of studies using this self-report method, as well as, reviewing the literature surrounding this topic. They concluded that although a large amount of data can be obtained using self-reports due to the eagerness of participants to answer questions about themselves, the validity of such data could be called into question when the accuracy of these answers is assessed. It was proposed by Robins et al (2007) that an individual may not have a genuinely accurate picture of themselves. Therefore, it is not possible for Thompson and Dinnel's (2003) earlier study to have accounted for the accuracy of the participants answers in the first instance. Consequently, the threat to the validity of Thompson's (2003, 2005 and 2007) or Pullman and Allik's (2008) studies cannot be ignored. This recognition may then cause the suggestion that the significance of self-worth for the raising of attainment in students remains unclear. However, low self worth and low self esteem are also considered to be associated with certain behaviours such as failure-avoidance or negative reactions to competition, which makes us less dependent on measurement scales. Indeed, when drawing upon my own professional practice it becomes possible to observe true life examples of some behaviours explored in the research. As a result, this may act as encouragement for the importance of self-worth in relation to educational attainment. In which case, the research supporting a potential link between self-worth/self-esteem and academic attainment will now be evaluated.
Self-Worth/Self-Esteem may affect achievement
It is here that we shall begin discussing the evidence that may suggest that self-worth/self-esteem has an effect on academic achievement. This section shall follow the order of discussing the possible effects of self-worth/self-esteem on academic goal setting, the potential achievement hindering behaviours that may arise from low self-esteem/self-worth and finally the possibly negative effect of education on self-worth/self-esteem. During this discussion my own professional experiences will be drawn upon in order to either support or contradict the evidence being critically explored.
First and foremost, self-worth may have been implied to have an effect on achievement when certain academic goals are set based on the level of self-worth/self-esteem a student has. For example, Crocker et al (2006) highlighted from their research that there is a tendency for many people to focus their attention on raising or maintaining their self-esteem or self-worth when setting goals rather than on being successful in the direct action or event itself. This behaviour could be seen as a hindrance as it takes the individuals focus away from real progression in a chosen area. Plus, it could be interpreted that if an academic goal is difficult to relate to a self-worth goal (possibly because it is not clear) then the student's motivation may be lower as a consequence. One suggestion from Crocker et al (2006) is that perhaps the self-worth of students could be raised if pupils were shown how to link a self-worth/self-esteem maintenance goal with a goal that aims for success. It is believed that goals aiming for success were more clear and reliable. However, as this research is dated and it was purely based upon secondary sources, it could be viewed necessary to conduct a full study to further validate such claims.
Therefore, in order to further explore the relationship between goal setting, self-worth and achievement may I suggest that research conducted by Shim et al (2012) could become useful? After studying undergraduates over the course of an academic year, Shim et al (2012) identified three types of goal setting; mastery goals, goals based on demonstrating superior ability and goals based on concealing inferior ability. It was found that those with low self-esteem tended to set goals that were based around concealing an inferior ability. Students with low self-worth have already valued their abilities, qualities or achievements as relatively low. From anxiety over the unknown outcome such pupils may not want there to be physical evidence of their failings. Additionally, it could be said that they described mastery goals as having a positive effect on self-esteem. This may be due to students developing competence in something that they deem as admirable and thus they judge that the value of their abilities, qualities or achievements as high. It was the setting of mastery goals that is identified in this study as having potential benefits for achievement.
In further testimony to the impact of goal setting on education, Thompson and Perry (2005) argued that those who set themselves social comparison goals (whereby an individual is comparing themselves to those around them) had a much higher probability of producing lower academic performance. Also, it was noted that these people tended to have lower rather than higher self-worth. If a student decides what is admirable mainly from comparisons with other people or what other people would find admirable, then it may be possible to say that such goals could be more difficult to achieve. A student that produces a list of ideals or an ideal form of themselves that is based largely on others rather than themselves may be prone to not being able to achieve such successes. This would then lead to a low self-worth as they judge that the value of their achievements, qualities and abilities are not to be admired or respected by others. These students might not perform as well because they lack goals that aim to develop competence, such as mastery goals. However, these claims are based upon the use of self-worth scales, so it might be necessary to apply the previously discussed limitations of this method.
Despite these limitations, the outlined research into goal setting was particularly interesting to me due to experiences that I have had in my own classroom. It came to my attention that the children in my class struggled a lot with setting themselves goals or 'targets'. Often, they would look at their friend's targets and copy them, or ask for suggestions rather than thinking of one independently. However, when they were able to discuss their targets with their teacher and received help setting a clear and reliable goal, they would work much harder towards achieving such a goal. Therefore, my own experiences could offer support to Crocker et al (2006) and Shim et al (2012) who it was implied by that the setting of reliable and clear goals may increase motivation and, as a result, achievement.
Overall, it appears that those with high self-worth may tend to adopt clearer, more reliable mastery goals. It was interpreted that having clear goals (that require the implementation of practise) may be the reason behind improvements in the pupil's academic performance. Additionally, if a student can link a goal that is clear and reliable, to a goal that maintains or increases their self-worth, then that student will have an increased probability of achieving their academic goals. After all, if a student has a goal that will lead to a situation where he is admired for abilities, qualities or achievements, then by identifying such a goal you are possibly revealing which goals are linked to their self-worth. In turn, you could be identifying goals that the student may have the most motivation to achieve. Moreover, may it be suggested that if teachers and practitioners understood how to raise self-worth, or understood the ideals of their pupils, then perhaps this would lead to an increase in academic performance. This is especially in terms of combating low self-worth and the behaviours that may result from this.
Next, in order to emphasise the impact that low self-worth might have on academic achievement it may be beneficial to briefly look at the correlation between low self-worth, depression and academic achievement. For example, professor Fathi-Ashtiani et al (2007) studied the self-esteem and depression levels of a large sample of undergraduate participants and compared this with their academic achievement. It is suggested from their results that depression can have a severely negative effect on educational attainment. Further to this, Haugen and Lund (2002) studied student teachers and found that low self-esteem was particularly common amongst those who suffered from depression. Although their sample was restricted to student teachers (and perhaps it is just student teachers that are depressed!) it is proposed here that if poor academic achievement is linked to low self-worth, the behaviour that leads to this low academic performance might be useful to identi
